tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-87906542688429400122024-03-18T20:27:56.839-07:00geografi lingkunganKhoirunnas anfa'uhum linnasHendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.comBlogger526125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-14437614404055852642023-11-05T02:35:00.002-08:002023-11-05T02:35:21.556-08:00ZONA GEMPA SUBDUKSI BENIOFF<span class="x193iq5w xeuugli x13faqbe x1vvkbs x1xmvt09 x1lliihq x1s928wv xhkezso x1gmr53x x1cpjm7i x1fgarty x1943h6x xudqn12 x3x7a5m x6prxxf xvq8zen xo1l8bm xzsf02u x1yc453h" dir="auto"><div class="xdj266r x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs x126k92a"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVa-ZCkq8pqG6RH5gzBHNw0NjW7pMbT5hqT1r5TXYmJaNTDglozO8f2cI5UQRWVQjiVwgx7mUmswV7_KB_oxMCmNJ7NaQ5dI-vvOe48lQ-nttW6nVVRVt56GQBVfyr0T01lq6KsHKlBbLci_86VHNSWueM_MWZob73IfLany0lYJnlxXt-l6m2LNp7HOum/s1248/Wilayah%20rawan%20tsunami%20Indonesia%20juga%20dikontrol%20geologi%20Indonesia..jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="658" data-original-width="1248" height="169" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVa-ZCkq8pqG6RH5gzBHNw0NjW7pMbT5hqT1r5TXYmJaNTDglozO8f2cI5UQRWVQjiVwgx7mUmswV7_KB_oxMCmNJ7NaQ5dI-vvOe48lQ-nttW6nVVRVt56GQBVfyr0T01lq6KsHKlBbLci_86VHNSWueM_MWZob73IfLany0lYJnlxXt-l6m2LNp7HOum/s320/Wilayah%20rawan%20tsunami%20Indonesia%20juga%20dikontrol%20geologi%20Indonesia..jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><span><a name='more'></a></span><div dir="auto"><br /></div><div dir="auto"> ZONA BERLAGE-WADATI</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Dalam ilmu geologi tektonik, yaitu bagian geologi yang membahas pergerakan lempeng-lempeng litosfer (lempeng litosfer: segmen/pecahan litosfer) dan struktur-struktur regional di kerak Bumi yang diakibatkan pergerakan itu (misalnya pegunungan, cekungan samudra), terkenal istilah subduksi (subduction). </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Subduksi adalah proses menunjamnya lempeng oseanik/samudra ke bawah lempeng yang lain (bisa lempeng oseanik atau <a tabindex="-1"></a>kontinental/benua) ketika lempeng-lempeng ini bergerak bertemu (konvergensi). Dalam istilah bahasa Indonesia, subduksi suka disebut penunjaman. Karena ia merupakan jalur atau zona, maka disebut jalur atau zona subduksi.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Istilah subduction sendiri pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh Andre Amstutz pada tahun 1951.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">---</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Zona penunjaman lempeng samudra di permukaan dicirikan oleh jalur palung samudra, zona ini miring mendalam menjauhi palung menuju mantel Bumi. Zona subduksi ini merupakan sumber gempa bermagnitudo menengah-kuat. Bagian lempeng yang menunjam langsung di bawah kerak benua – artinya kerak/lempeng samudra di sini saling beradu dengan kerak benua, adalah bagian subduksi yang paling sering menimbulkan gempa kuat dan relatif dangkal, sehingga sangat berbahaya sebab bisa mengguncang permukaan dengan sangat kuat termasuk menimbulkan tsunami yang besar bila episentrum gempa di bawah kolom laut. Bagian subduksi ini sekarang terkenal disebut zona megathrust. Gempa Aceh 26 Desember 2004 dengan magnitudo 9,2 yang menimbulkan tsunami besar ke pantai-pantai Asia Tenggara, Asia Selatan, dan Afrika Timur menelan korban jiwa sekitar 1/4 juta orang adalah jenis gempa megathrust.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Zona subduksi lempeng samudra ini jadi dibuktikan keberadaannya oleh sumber-sumber gempa yang terjadi di sepanjang subduksi itu sendiri, baik pada pertemuannya dengan kerak/lempeng samudra maupun subduksi yang lebih dalam lagi sampai masuk ke dalam mantel atas Bumi. Tercatat kedalaman sumber gempa subduksi itu dari 10 km sampai 700 km.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Adalah Victor Hugo Benioff seorang ahli seismologi yang bekerja di California Amerika Serikat yang oleh dunia barat dikenal sebagai penemu zona gempa subduksi ini. Benioff melakukan penelitiannya pada tahun 1949 di dua area palung yaitu Palung Tonga-Kermadec di utara Selandia Baru, dan Palung di sebelah barat Amerika Selatan. Di kedua tempat itu Benioff menemukan bahwa sumber-sumber gempa terdapat pada suatu bidang miring pada sudut sekitar 45° menjauhi palung mendalam menuju mantel. Benioff mempublikasikan penemuannya ini dalam suatu makalah berjudul: “Seismic evidence for crustal structure and tectonic activity” pada 1955 dalam Simposium Crust of the Earth yang diadakan oleh Geological Society of America. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Saat itu teori tektonik lempeng belum ada, istilah subduksi baru dikemukakan Amstutz pada 1951. Tetapi saat penelitian-penelitian terkait tektonik lempeng yang muncul pada sepanjang tahun 1960-an, termasuk masalah kegempaan pada zona subduksi, maka kegempaan di wilayah subdukdi itu disebut sebagai Zona Benioff, atau subduksi sendiri suka disebut Zona Benioff.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Saya saat masih menjadi mahasiswa geologi dan belajar tektonik pada pertengahan tahun 1980-an, diajarkan pula bahwa gempa di zona subduksi itu sebagai Zona Benioff. Karena zona subduksi memagari wilayah Indonesia di bagian selatan juga sebagian wilayah utara dan timur lautnya maka dikatakan bahwa Zona Benioff pun memagari sebagian besarwilayah Indonesia.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">---</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Tetapi dunia Barat tidak tahu keberadaan dua ahli seismologi ini yang menemukan zona gempa subduksi serupa yang ditemukan Hugo Benioff, tetapi mereka menemukannya lebih awal, lebih dari 20 tahun sebelum Benioff. Mereka adalah Kiyoo Wadati seismolog Jepang yang meneliti gempa menengah dan dalam di wilayah Jepang, dan Hendrik Berlage, seismolog Belanda yang meneliti gempa menengah dan dalam di wilayah Hindia Belanda, Indonesia sekarang.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Wadati mulai meneliti gempa menengah dan dalam di berbagai area Jepang dari tahun 1928 sampai 1934, menggambarkan frekuensi dan distribusi sumbernya. Lalu pada tahun 1935 ia mengkompilasi hasil-hasil peneltiannya dan menggambarkan kontur kedalaman gempa-gempa menengah dan dalam di wilayah Jepang. Dari kontur ini Wadati menemukan bahwa zonasi gempa ini miring mendalam menuju mantel menjauhi Palung Jepang ke arah benua Asia. Itulah zona subduksi Jepang. Wadati menemukannya tahun 1935 atau 20 tahun sebelum Benioff mempublikan penemuan gempa subduksi yang sama dari Palung Tonga-Kermadec dan dari Palung Amerika Selatan.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Kiyoo Wadati telah menuliskan penelitian-penelitiannya itu yang dari tahun 1928 tetapi secara lokal yaitu dalam jurnal geofisika Jepang dan berbahasa Jepang. Tentu saat-saat itu belum biasa melakukan publikasi di jurnal-jurnal internasional, selain mungkin sebagian besar jurnalnya sendiri belum ada. Para ilmuwan di Eropa atau Amerika Serikat pun sebenrnya mempublikasikan penelitian mereka di jurnal-jurnal lokal di negara mereka dalam bahasa nasional mereka.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Publikasi penemuan zona gempa subduksi oleh Kiyoo Wadati pada tahun 1935 dalam versi berbahasa Inggris adalah: Wadati, K., 1935, On the activity of deep-focus earthquakes in the Japan islands and neighbourhoods: Geophysical Magazine, v. 8, pp. 305–325.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Dunia Barat kemudian mengetahui hal ini, lalu mengubah nama Zona Benioff itu menjadi Zona Wadati-Benioff. Meskipun masih banyak yang menggunakan nama Zona Benioff saja, mungkin karena namanya lebih pendek, atau memang tidak tahu tentang penelitaian Kiyoo Wadati.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">---</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Tetapi dunia geologi, dan sebagian besar dari kita, masih tidak mengetahui tokoh yang satu ini, yang menemukan zona gempa subduksi yang sama yang ditemukan oleh Wadati dan Benioff, pada saat yang bersamaan dengan penelitian Wadati, dan 18 tahun lebih awal dari publikasi Benioff tentang penemuannya.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">J.T. (Han) van Gorsel mengangkat kisah penelitian pionir/tokoh di Hindia Belanda ini dalam buku barunya “Pioneers and Milestones of Indonesian Geology”, volume 3, tahun 2022, halaman 343-345.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Hendrik Petrus Berlage, nama tokoh itu, seorang ahli seismologi Belanda. Berlage bekerja di Batavia, Hindia Belanda, selama 25 tahun dari 1925-1950. Berlage bekerja di Koninklijke Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium (KMMO). Lembaga ini selain mengumpulkan data magnetik dan cuaca, juga mencatat data-data gempa. Saat itu peralatan seismograf telah ditemukan, sehingga lokasi sumber gempa dan magnitudonya dapat ditentukan dengan tepat.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Sebelum datang ke Batavia dalam rangka menyelesaikan studi doktornya di University of Zurich, Berlage telah berhubungan dengan permasalahan gempa-gempa menengah dan dalam di Hindia Belanda. Ia mengumpulkan data gempa-gempa tersebut dari gempa yang terjadi mulai tahun 1918. Berlage menyelesaikan pendidikan doktornya pada tahun 1924. Lalu ia bekerja sebagai seismologist di KMMO Batavia mulai tahun 1925.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Selain pekerjaannya memantau kejadian gempa-gempa di Hindia Belanda, Berlage melanjutkan penelitiannya tentang gempa menengah dan dalam dengan cakupan data lebih besar, yaitu untuk gempa-gempa yang terjadi pada tahun 1918-1936. Akhirnya Berlage menuliskan dan mempublikasikan peneltiannya itu pada tahun 1937. Berlage menemukan bahwa distribusi gempa menengah dan dalam terjadi secara sistematik mendalam membentuk bidang miring menjauhi palung ke arah mantel menuju benua Asia. Itulah gempa subduksi, seperti yang dipublikasikan Wadati (1935) dan Benioff (1955). Judul publikasi Berlage adalah: Berlage, H.P., 1937, A provisional catalogue of deep-focus earthquakes in the Netherlands East Indies, 1918-1936, Gerlands Beitrage Geophysik 50, p. 7-17.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">---</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Bila melihat waktu mulai penelitian sampai publikasi tentang gempa-gempa di zona subduksi itu, maka Hendrik Berlage telah memulainya dari tahun 1923 – 1937 (14 tahun), Kiyoo Wadati dari tahun 1928 – 1935 (7 tahun), dan Hugo Benioff dari tahun 1949 – 1955 (6 tahun). </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Jadi Hendrik Berlage yang melakukan penelitian itu paling lama di samping cakupan wilayahnya pun yang paling luas -di seluruh palung di Hindia Belanda.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Tetapi mengapa dunia tidak tahu tentang penelitian Hendrik Berlage, baik dahulu, maupun sekarang -tidak banyak dari kita (geolog & seismolog Indonesia) yang sampai sekarang pun tidak mengetahuinya. Hanya oleh penelitian yang luar biasa tekun dari Han van Gorsel atas literatur-literatur lama geologi-geosains Indonesia, tokoh ini bisa kita ketahui.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Maka tidak berlebihan bila Zona Wadati-Benioff itu berdasarkan sejarah penelitian dan penemuan gempa subduksi mungkin lebih tepat disebut Zona Wadati-Berlage, seperti usul Han van Gorsel (2022), atau masih beralasan meurut hemat saya bila menyebutnya Zona Berlage-Wadati.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Tetapi nama Zona Benioff sudah terlanjur populer, nama Wadati-Benioff pun belum banyak yang menggunakannya, apalagi nama Zona Wadati-Berlage atau Zona Berlage-Wadati.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">---</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Lepas dari persoalan nama itu, sebagai seorang geolog Indonesia, saya berkali-kali berbangga dengan Negeri ini, sebab geologi wilayah ini mendunia, berkontribusi atas teori-teori penting tektonik global, dalam hal ini subduksi. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Tetapi belum selesai cerita geologi di Negeri ini. Subduksinya aktif, lempeng samudranya masih terus menunjam di bawah kita , gempa demi gempa masih terjadi, nanti yang besar dan kuat pun akan terjadi lagi, bisa diiringi tsunami besar juga. Mitigasi harus semakin baik. Subduksi tuanya jutaan tahun lalu telah menghasilkan banyak gunungapi, banyak yang telah mati, yang masih hidup pun banyak, dan mineralisasi telah dipengaruhinya membuat Negeri ini dari zaman kuna telah terkenal sebagai swarnadwipa -pulau emas.</div><div dir="auto"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgd5KOqg2RC0PEchFwF7p6JyrP-QYLzQiI0b-DoCj3WKEUTtOaQrYOlfl4BG3druxQqgRExxRCvEgPrH_24TQ9MEgtrYB6MhaWGVlCIeb2XOYu8RKT_vstLuRKGERZ_DK7Qf53Te9Mr6T6-hpUBpXAvWAwyFvRW2IkqIXAFcIFqNTgjot35mdhuMPnHTPmi/s2048/0.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1560" data-original-width="2048" height="244" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgd5KOqg2RC0PEchFwF7p6JyrP-QYLzQiI0b-DoCj3WKEUTtOaQrYOlfl4BG3druxQqgRExxRCvEgPrH_24TQ9MEgtrYB6MhaWGVlCIeb2XOYu8RKT_vstLuRKGERZ_DK7Qf53Te9Mr6T6-hpUBpXAvWAwyFvRW2IkqIXAFcIFqNTgjot35mdhuMPnHTPmi/s320/0.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><span class="x193iq5w xeuugli x13faqbe x1vvkbs x1xmvt09 x1lliihq x1s928wv xhkezso x1gmr53x x1cpjm7i x1fgarty x1943h6x xudqn12 x3x7a5m x6prxxf xvq8zen xo1l8bm xzsf02u" dir="auto">Kontur
kedalaman zona gempa (dalam ratusan km) menunjukkan kedalaman dan arah
subduksi lempeng samudra (Berlage, 1937), dalam van Gorsel (2022).</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZwxJ2Qg5S7D_AT9-ZMWJmizGGQmp3fntzvdC4A4HYZlBbYa0ONH3qan3_Ppu6abhyphenhyphenFpcFFVdyHmjVQDpFerqfaXSS90BXkocJd1YJWqZvajpEoGRLiF87xYFfOTE__wPne2fpuj1vD5mM8L-KPj0Xz5itXGqg_bhoJMBR4jk-oLMHw0uOklaUxBsRpGnt/s832/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="602" data-original-width="832" height="232" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZwxJ2Qg5S7D_AT9-ZMWJmizGGQmp3fntzvdC4A4HYZlBbYa0ONH3qan3_Ppu6abhyphenhyphenFpcFFVdyHmjVQDpFerqfaXSS90BXkocJd1YJWqZvajpEoGRLiF87xYFfOTE__wPne2fpuj1vD5mM8L-KPj0Xz5itXGqg_bhoJMBR4jk-oLMHw0uOklaUxBsRpGnt/s320/1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><span class="x193iq5w xeuugli x13faqbe x1vvkbs x1xmvt09 x1lliihq x1s928wv xhkezso x1gmr53x x1cpjm7i x1fgarty x1943h6x xudqn12 x3x7a5m x6prxxf xvq8zen xo1l8bm xzsf02u" dir="auto">Subduksi, penunjaman, lempeng samudra ke bawah lempeng benua, dan sumber-sumber gempa di bidang subduksi tersebut.</span><br /><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><br /><div dir="auto"><br /></div></div></span><span class="fullpost">
</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-82742363338812961632023-09-18T07:40:00.001-07:002023-09-18T07:40:11.684-07:00PADAR<div class="" dir="auto"><div class="x1iorvi4 x1pi30zi x1l90r2v x1swvt13" data-ad-comet-preview="message" data-ad-preview="message" id=":rkf:"><div class="x78zum5 xdt5ytf xz62fqu x16ldp7u"><div class="xu06os2 x1ok221b"><span class="x193iq5w xeuugli x13faqbe x1vvkbs x1xmvt09 x1lliihq x1s928wv xhkezso x1gmr53x x1cpjm7i x1fgarty x1943h6x xudqn12 x3x7a5m x6prxxf xvq8zen xo1l8bm xzsf02u x1yc453h" dir="auto"><div class="xdj266r x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs x126k92a"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZe9nPkU4RTFJW9DXTkOhE3cP0ir6RHfJcu7Xmkf-_3Bi00FCFmebi980mIZ_QlbBiDIWvsUjvARSOE4uXg5_V3XhYz5Ejji2LvAgdJeoJrFcIHGXrLB5JxlJf8q0NWj_-b2ikCTP6597relPhhHoPQlyjiXsh-bbxWC57hEQdvrtRsqQpVNX7J63gl9H3/s900/wisata-labuan-bajo-5-Padar-Newsa.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="480" data-original-width="900" height="214" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZe9nPkU4RTFJW9DXTkOhE3cP0ir6RHfJcu7Xmkf-_3Bi00FCFmebi980mIZ_QlbBiDIWvsUjvARSOE4uXg5_V3XhYz5Ejji2LvAgdJeoJrFcIHGXrLB5JxlJf8q0NWj_-b2ikCTP6597relPhhHoPQlyjiXsh-bbxWC57hEQdvrtRsqQpVNX7J63gl9H3/w400-h214/wisata-labuan-bajo-5-Padar-Newsa.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><br /><div dir="auto"><br /></div></div><span><a name='more'></a></span><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Kagumi keindahan pulaunya, pahami riwayat sejarah alam pembentukannya melalui geologi.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Padar, sebuah pulau di kawasan Kepulauan Komodo, Flores, mungkin pulau yang paling banyak muncul fotonya di medsos daripada pulau-pulau lainnya di Kepulauan Komodo. Pulaunya memang unik bentuknya sehingga sangat ikonik bagi wilayah ini dan 'instagramable'. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto"><a tabindex="-1"></a>Orang-orang yang pergi ke sana biasanya akan naik ke bukit yang tinggi di pulau ini lalu berfoto berlatar belakang sebagian pulau ini yang dikelilingi teluk-teluk yang saling berhadapan. Pemandangannya indah sekali, apalagi bila yang mengambil fotonya seorang fotografer. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Tetapi apakah Pulau Padar itu secara geologi, jarang orang mengetahuinya sebab tidak banyak juga yang membahasnya. Kebetulan saya pernah menemani fieldtrip geologi ke beberapa pulau di Kepulauan Komodo itu untuk belajar tentang sedimentasi karbonat/batugamping dan volkanisme bawah laut, berikut ini cerita singkatnya. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">--- </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Pulau-pulau di Nusa Tenggara merekam proses-proses geologi sedimentasi karbonat/ gamping dan volkanisme bawah laut. Itu terjadi dari Miosen Awal, nama suatu waktu geologi pada sekitar 20 juta tahun yang lalu. Pada saat itu, belum ada satu pun pulau muncul di Nusa Tenggara. Tetapi di bawah lautnya terjadi sedimentasi karbonat dan volkanisme bawah laut. Jadi ada lava atau lahar dari erupsi gunungapi bawah laut yang bercampur dengan sedimentasi karbonat. Volkanismenya sendiri bisa saja sebagian muncul sebagai puncak gunungapi di atas laut.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Proses geologi ini berlangsung berulang selama sekitar 15 juta tahun sampai pulau-pulau di Nusa Tenggara muncul di atas laut karena pengangkatan yang berhubungan dengan proses tektonik (gerakan-gerakan geologis di litosfer Bumi). Setelah menjadi pulau-pulau, sedimentasi karbonatnya berhenti sebab sedimentasi karbonat hanya terjadi di bawah laut, tetapi aktivitasnya volkanismenya berlanjut sampai sekarang hanya terjadi di daratan.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Begitupun gugusan kepulauan di wilayah Komodo, Flores. Para geolog telah mendatangi pulau-pulau ini dari zaman Belanda sampai para geolog Indonesia. Mereka meneliti dan memetakan batuan-batuan di wilayah ini, menghasilkan peta geologi permukaan. Peta ini memuat sebaran dan jenis batuan di permukaan, deformasi (lipatan, patahan) yang dialami batuan, dan berbagai fenomena geologi di permukaan. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Peta geologi wilayah Kepulauan Komodo dan Pulau Flores bagian barat telah diterbitkan Direktorat Geologi (sekarang Badan Geologi) sejak 1978 dengan penyusun utama para geolog Nana Ratman dan Aswan Yasin. Dari peta ini dapat dilihat bahwa sebagian besar wilayah Kepulauan Komodo dan Flores bagian barat disusun oleh batuan karbonat dan volkanik bawah laut dari sekitar 20 juta tahun yang lalu. Volkanik daratan yang menyusun bagian selatan wilayah ini baru terjadi pada umur termuda. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Begitupun Pulau Padar. Pulau Padar termasuk pulau yang paling tua di wilayah Kepulauan Komodo dan Flores bagian barat. Ia disusun oleh batuan karbonat dan batuan volkanik bawah laut berumur Miosen Awal (20 juta tahun) yang keduanya saling behubungan bersambungan (menjemari - seperti jari-jari kedua tangan disambungkan) yang menunjukkan bahwa keduanya terjadi bersamaan di tempat yang sama. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">---</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Pulau Padar yang indah itu dahulu terjadi di bawah laut pada 20 juta tahun yang lalu, kemudian mulai terangkat pada 5 juta tahun yang lalu sampai akhirnya muncul di atas laut sebagai pulau. Tidak seperti pulau-pulau lain di sekitarnya, Pulau Padar tidak menjadi tempat volkanisme daratan pada umur muda. Jadi ketika berjalan di Pulau Padar, lava, lahar, dan gamping/ karbonat terlihat di bukit dan tebingnya. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Kagumi keindahan pulaunya, pahami riwayat sejarah alam pembentukannya melalui geologi.***</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEja2LwORAL_H58v34GYUM6jy3SLoQJhnW9z9GwOe4t56ChkvIGIwGvCi9LYrc4XLo-h8IpmxpcCO_vBAoNyTII-jin2TZnf8pOgXhqQBUhjh2eqLQ5A-GtCUYxCWOU0PxGGM87TZWXoiYxTMesmaOgGfP7EWdf3-_hvP_iGqfmvvk-tMzfudsEsygOYMsX4/s1236/0.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1236" data-original-width="1080" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEja2LwORAL_H58v34GYUM6jy3SLoQJhnW9z9GwOe4t56ChkvIGIwGvCi9LYrc4XLo-h8IpmxpcCO_vBAoNyTII-jin2TZnf8pOgXhqQBUhjh2eqLQ5A-GtCUYxCWOU0PxGGM87TZWXoiYxTMesmaOgGfP7EWdf3-_hvP_iGqfmvvk-tMzfudsEsygOYMsX4/s320/0.jpg" width="280" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-17355236142081704082023-09-18T07:33:00.003-07:002023-09-18T07:44:30.165-07:00Letusan Gunung Krakatau Purba<div dir="auto"><div class="x1iorvi4 x1pi30zi x1l90r2v x1swvt13" data-ad-comet-preview="message" data-ad-preview="message" id=":rit:"><div class="x78zum5 xdt5ytf xz62fqu x16ldp7u"><div class="xu06os2 x1ok221b"><span class="x193iq5w xeuugli x13faqbe x1vvkbs x1xmvt09 x1lliihq x1s928wv xhkezso x1gmr53x x1cpjm7i x1fgarty x1943h6x xudqn12 x3x7a5m x6prxxf xvq8zen xo1l8bm xzsf02u x1yc453h" dir="auto"><div class="xdj266r x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs x126k92a"><div dir="auto"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjN_Tt_JGHcV6zVKn60wdI6LHKuqo683Fk7QmptaahB_cHxahjs1OW8jasKKrytxmn5UTWHllc6-w6DACXpuUfn8FBCbvXEFeeWKpomhYZEBttAaP7nxZp0TV6Y3WMahlIP1FLeJNaVac1LVkpyxD7N5d2ZOl-YXrgXzHV7408j-D_LKH4BWLDsqz8_6dDv/s300/krakatau1-1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="225" data-original-width="300" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjN_Tt_JGHcV6zVKn60wdI6LHKuqo683Fk7QmptaahB_cHxahjs1OW8jasKKrytxmn5UTWHllc6-w6DACXpuUfn8FBCbvXEFeeWKpomhYZEBttAaP7nxZp0TV6Y3WMahlIP1FLeJNaVac1LVkpyxD7N5d2ZOl-YXrgXzHV7408j-D_LKH4BWLDsqz8_6dDv/w320-h240/krakatau1-1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><span><a name='more'></a></span><div dir="auto"><br /></div>27 AGUSTUS 1883 </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Tanggal hari ini 27 Agustus, tetapi 140 tahun yang lalu; Senin, 27 Agustus 1883, tepat pukul 10.20 di atas Bumi ini terdengar bunyi ledakan paling keras yang pernah didengar manusia: ledakan gunungapi Krakatau di Selat Sunda. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Tulis Simon Winchester, geolog Inggris yang kemudian berprofesi jurnalis dan penulis, hari itu dunia bagai meledak di bukunya yang terkenal "Krakatoa: The Day The World Exploded 27th August 1883" (Winchester, 2003). </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto"><a tabindex="-1"></a>Bunyi ledakannya terdengar sampai 4.600 km dari pus<br />at letusan bahkan dapat didengar oleh 1/8 penduduk Bumi saat itu. Winchester menggali dokumen-dokumen lama di Batavia, ia menemukan bahwa sebelum erupsi, terjadi sejumlah gejala alam yang tak biasa. Perilaku hewan berubah. Kuda-kuda mengamuk, gajah sirkus gelisah, ayam tidak bertelur, kera dan burung tak nampak lagi di pepohonan. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Para peneliti menyatakan bahwa Krakatau bersama ledakan Tambora (1815) mencatatkan nilai indeks ledakan volkanik (Volcanic Explosivity Index - VEI) terbesar dalam sejarah modern. The Guiness Book of Records mencatat ledakan Krakatau sebagai ledakan paling hebat yang terekam dalam sejarah. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Ledakan Krakatau telah melemparkan batu-batu apung dan abu vulkanik dengan volume 18 kilometer kubik. Semburan abu vulkaniknya mencapai ketinggian 80 km dan mengganggu pencahayaan dan pemanasan Bumi dari Matahari beberapa waktu. Batu-batu pijar yang dilontarkannya seketika menjadi batu-batuapung dan jatuh di mana-mana di antara Pulau Jawa dan Sumatra lalu hanyut terbawa laut ke Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan, Australia dan Selandia Baru. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Ledakan itu menghancurkan habis Gunung Danan dan Gunung Perbuwatan, dua gunung di kompleks Krakatau serta sebagian Gunung Rakata yang setengah kerucutnya lenyap. Ledakan ini telah membuat cekungan kaldera di bawah laut Selat Sunda selebar 7 km dan sedalam 250 meter. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Material ledakan yang dihempaskan dan jatuh ke laut juga sebagian tubuh gunung yang runtuh longsor ke dalam laut telah menimbulkan tsunami naik setinggi 40 meter menghancurkan desa-desa dan apa saja yang berada di pantai dan sekitarnya. Inilah pemakan korban tewas terbanyak. Tercatat jumlah korban yang tewas mencapai 36.417 orang berasal dari 295 kampung di sekitar Selat Sunda. Tsunami pun menghempas hingga Batavia bahkan Cilamaya di Karawang. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Simon Winchester (2003) menulis orang-orang di Batavia lari dan naik ke tiang lampu di wilayah Pasar Ikan, Jakarta Utara sekarang. Sebelumnya lampu-lampu berisi gas itu pecah berantakan dihempas gelombang bunyi ledakan. Gelombang Tsunami yang ditimbulkan bahkan merambat hingga ke pantai Hawaii, pantai barat Amerika Tengah dan Semenanjung Arab yang jauhnya 7 ribu kilometer. Tide gouges di wilayah-wilayah tersebut mencatatnya. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Pada hari itu dunia memang bagai meledak, sebab energi letusan Krakatau 26-27 Agustus 1883 itu setara dengan sekitar 30.000 kali bom atom yang diledakkan di Hiroshima dan Nagasaki di akhir Perang Dunia II. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Krakatau masih ada, anaknya yang lahir 1927 yang kini aktif terus, meletus-letus, dan 5 tahun yang lalu ia meruntuhkan sebagian tubuhnya, longsor ke dalam laut, dan menimbulkan tsunami ke pantai Banten dan Lampung merenggut sekitar 450 korban tewas. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Dari Krakatau kita belajar manusia hidup di atas Bumi yang aktif.***</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyzOiCgVFMYFkTnBnb92GhnzvRnK61d-pbGfpZrtDH3VGMEaeHHG5nOpCvAIu5FSBuuZl6p_TC92ZalI9p9kD40nYFdBvqUwGV4Bxj1esaZGiLbjpZ59AnOq36jHc6zZikw_0a2WEcQEDYECuce4jOtGOygCmCbaSzNFz5VGvrWspusNK6H3R8elgaFZRW/s1280/0.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; 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</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-8420413437317546242022-11-26T03:25:00.005-08:002022-11-26T03:26:05.445-08:00REAKTIVASI GUNUNGAPI AKIBAT GEMPA <span class="x193iq5w xeuugli x13faqbe x1vvkbs x1xmvt09 x1lliihq x1s928wv xhkezso x1gmr53x x1cpjm7i x1fgarty x1943h6x xudqn12 x3x7a5m x6prxxf xvq8zen xo1l8bm xzsf02u x1yc453h" dir="auto"><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xdj266r x126k92a"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBSA-dQ-FdEDII_yfliv2jDwrtRUTvURwtqwVwehTHdh6rI01ZvasXrqnZZ08RQkhEktgFeiC7tqoA1YutfRveAIMYgO_UqaV1NGSznmx0AgosTsLGqxFF01qYzBWwRLGFOcC4q4yCNhCqLr6pysOIsgWdCf1S63aYXjDZsarSYDnfAG9786npLbZMGw/s600/Citra%20Sesar%20Cimadani.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="258" data-original-width="600" height="138" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBSA-dQ-FdEDII_yfliv2jDwrtRUTvURwtqwVwehTHdh6rI01ZvasXrqnZZ08RQkhEktgFeiC7tqoA1YutfRveAIMYgO_UqaV1NGSznmx0AgosTsLGqxFF01qYzBWwRLGFOcC4q4yCNhCqLr6pysOIsgWdCf1S63aYXjDZsarSYDnfAG9786npLbZMGw/s320/Citra%20Sesar%20Cimadani.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><span><a name='more'></a></span><div dir="auto"><br /></div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Di Pulau-pulau Sumatra, Jawa, Nusa Tenggara, pusat-pusat gempa yang terjadi di pulau-pulau ini berbagi tempat dengan gunung-gunungapi yang memanjang dari Sumatra sampai Nusa Tenggara (disebut busur gunung-gunungapi Sunda). Jadi wajar saja bila orang berpikir bahwa ketika gempa terjadi di dekat gunungapi maka aktivitas gunungapi tersebut bisa meningkat.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Itu pula yang menjadi perbincangan <a tabindex="-1"></a>orang ketika gempa Cianjur 21 November 2022 kemarin terjadi. Mereka mengkhawatirkan Gunung Gede akan meningkat aktivitasnya dipicu gempa tersebut. Lokasi episenter (pusat gempa yang diproyeksikan ke permukaan) gempa ini memang di lereng tenggara Gunung Gede. Pusat gempanya sebenarnya ada di kedalaman 10 km, orang juga berpikir jangan-jangan kantong magma di bawah Gunung Gede akan terpengaruh sehingga gunung akan menjadi lebih aktif.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Tengah orang berpikir begitu lalu beredar kabar di media sosial yang memberitahukan agar warga Cianjur waspada sebab Gunung Gede meletus banyak saksi yang melihat api di puncaknya. Kabar begini tentu membuat warga Cianjur semakin resah, setelah mereka terpaksa tinggal di pengungsian akibat gempa, kini mereka membayangkan akan dilanda lahar atau jatuhan batu-abu erupsi Gunung Gede.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">---</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Kabar tersebut bohong, hoax, telah dibantah oleh petugas Taman Nasional Gunung Gede-Pangrango dan PVMBG (Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi) yang mengawasi langsung Gunung Gede bahwa Gunung Gede tetap berada pada status normal seperti sebelum gempa terjadi. Tidak ada peningkatan aktivitas oleh gempa yang berpusat di lereng tenggara gunung.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Karena pusat gempa di lereng gunungapi ada juga yang berpikir bahwa gempa Cianjur kemarin ini adalah gempa vulkanik. Tentu bukan, pertama Gunung Gede tidak sedang menunjukkan peningkatan aktivitas sehingga tidak ada gempa berasal darinya, kedua gempa Cianjur dirasakan juga di Bogor, Jakarta, dan sebagian area lain sekitar Cianjur -ini jelas gempa tektonik sebab guncangannya dirasakan di kawasan yang luas.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">---</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Sebenarnya, dapatkah sebuah gempa tektonik memicu aktivitas gunungapi? Iya, kadang-kadang (tidak selalu). Tetapi ada syarat-syarat tertentu baik untuk gempanya maupun gunungapinya. Syarat untuk gempanya: (1) lokasi gempa di dekat gunungapi aktif, (2) gempanya harus kuat (M-magnitudo > 6), (3) pusat gempa dangkal (<30 km). Sayarat untuk gunungapinya: gunungapi pada status siap meletus (status level 3/ siaga atau level 4/awas). </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Untuk lalu benar-benar gunungapi itu meletus dipicu atau dipercepat gempa maka ada dua syarat lagi: (1) terdapat cukup volume magma yang dapat diletuskan di kantong magma dan pipa kepundan (jalur magma naik ke permukaan) di gunungapi tersebut, (2) terdapat tekanan gas magma dalam kondisi kritis di kantong magma. Jika kondisi tersebut dipenuhi, maka guncangan gempa yang kuat di dekat gunungapi dapat menyebabkan gas terlarut di dalam magma keluar dari magma, meningkatkan tekanan dan fluiditas magma dan ini dapat menyebabkan erupsi. Analoginya seperti satu botol berisi minuman bersoda yang dikocok, lalu buka tutupnya, maka minuman akan menyembur keluar.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">---</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Itu bukan syarat-syarat yang mudah dipenuhi. Gempa Cianjur 21 November 2022 tidak cukup kuat (< M6,0) sekalipun pusatnya dangkal. Lalu Gunung Gede sendiri sedang berstatus normal (level 1) artinya ia bukan dalam posisi kritis untuk meletus. Maka bisa dipastikan gempa tersebut tidak mengaktifkan apalagi membuat Gunung Gede meletus. Sekalipun misalnya gempa Cianjur kemarin punya magnitude kuat M7+ bila Gunung Gede sedang berstatus normal, gunung itu tidak akan meletus. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Kasus seperti itu pernah terjadi pada saat gempa utara Lombok terjadi pada 5 Agustus 2018. Pusat gempa di lereng utara Gunung Rinjani pada kedalaman 15 km dengan magnitude 7,0. Sebagian tubuh lereng Gunung Rinjani bahkan runtuh oleh gempa itu. Gempa-gempa susulan terjadi sampai lima hari kemudian, tercatat ada 447 gempa susulan terjadi di timur, utara, dan barat Gunung Rinjani, beberapa gempa susulan ada yang bermagnitudo 6+. Apakah Gunung Rinjani meletus oleh gempa kuat dan ratusan gempa susulannya. Tidak. Mengapa, sebab Gunung Rinjani tidak dalam status kritis untuk siap meletus.</div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Ada sistem geologi yang kompleks di bawah permukaan itu yang menyebabkan tidak mudahnya pemicuan terjadi, baik gunungapi oleh gempa, maupun satu sesar digerakkan oleh sesar penyebab gempa. </div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a"><div dir="auto">Simplifikasi suka dilakukan oleh para ilmuwan dan melakukan simulasi ini atau itu. Simulasi, pemodelan memang penting untuk mitigasi, tetapi masalah sebenarnya tidak sesederhana itu. Jadi jangan terlalu khawatir oleh kabar ini atau kabar itu yang mengatakan bahwa gunungapi itu akan meletus akibat gempa ini, sesar itu akan bergerak oleh sesar ini. </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh28WIoJqI_gEIicmpIos4e4O5c0xTn-ifl5X4cMfXnUtu8D0Yzycpes7jYazOF3gRHI4AZhSWUMgtgACOD_nyPI_CT0HTkRfMrT6vCWTOxa0O_vaSKuly4lX0pOYUcaQn-KeYk1zNV_PM5Us4KeKh8PlEIFG944nJw3T0xL1zOjHP6fB5qX7fTuKSVgA/s600/Citra%20Sesar%20Cimadani.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="258" data-original-width="600" height="138" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh28WIoJqI_gEIicmpIos4e4O5c0xTn-ifl5X4cMfXnUtu8D0Yzycpes7jYazOF3gRHI4AZhSWUMgtgACOD_nyPI_CT0HTkRfMrT6vCWTOxa0O_vaSKuly4lX0pOYUcaQn-KeYk1zNV_PM5Us4KeKh8PlEIFG944nJw3T0xL1zOjHP6fB5qX7fTuKSVgA/s320/Citra%20Sesar%20Cimadani.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face=""Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; font-size: 15px; text-align: start;">Episentrum gempa Cianjur 21 Nov. 2022 berada di lereng-kaki Gn. Gede.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhngTqdbQGegp4ymyK_SPbB-25M1i7KL1e0AQZMPekPMD6GDH906PSUNBiJwg_OFB0B2c5LhxqskvoMw6aDp9zr7JbPV5axVGXqtCPaZRlRjR9-jWLKCixtM132aFCSZQ9KQ6K33vRyoL_sg-O94CF9eahmPbZXN06cgm2e3wkq90VGi4V266IeNTgp7w/s1280/Gunung%20Gede%20(kanan)-Paangrango.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhngTqdbQGegp4ymyK_SPbB-25M1i7KL1e0AQZMPekPMD6GDH906PSUNBiJwg_OFB0B2c5LhxqskvoMw6aDp9zr7JbPV5axVGXqtCPaZRlRjR9-jWLKCixtM132aFCSZQ9KQ6K33vRyoL_sg-O94CF9eahmPbZXN06cgm2e3wkq90VGi4V266IeNTgp7w/s320/Gunung%20Gede%20(kanan)-Paangrango.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face=""Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; font-size: 15px; text-align: start;">Gunung Gede (kanan)-Paangrango (kiri) dilihat dari selatan (Cicurug, Sukabumi) -foto oleh Rintojiang (2016). Lokasi perkiraan episentrum gempa Cianjur ditunjukkan.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWfJ944zlN17fVJdKreNCcZGop34nUmylJvrkltfAoGkSLZy4F10VJJK9uvPB2frN8-EEese_zcTQPn5-kL_TLzpyhlp6wOoBGXa_XsFXzxyWUAUFhIIDRO55d1G9O3QYwTiRX2y7F6E1lcZmCaBkvdsPmg9NSELmV7b4qfeF20g4wX_SrwYu8RdKnnw/s894/Peta%20geologi%20Gunung%20Gede-Pangrango%20(Situmorang%20dan%20Hadisantoso,%20PVMBG).jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="702" data-original-width="894" height="251" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWfJ944zlN17fVJdKreNCcZGop34nUmylJvrkltfAoGkSLZy4F10VJJK9uvPB2frN8-EEese_zcTQPn5-kL_TLzpyhlp6wOoBGXa_XsFXzxyWUAUFhIIDRO55d1G9O3QYwTiRX2y7F6E1lcZmCaBkvdsPmg9NSELmV7b4qfeF20g4wX_SrwYu8RdKnnw/s320/Peta%20geologi%20Gunung%20Gede-Pangrango%20(Situmorang%20dan%20Hadisantoso,%20PVMBG).jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><span face=""Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; font-size: 15px; text-align: start;">Peta geologi Gunung Gede-Pangrango (Situmorang dan Hadisantoso, PVMBG). Nampak bahwa aktivitas volkanisme hanya terjadi di Gunung Gede, tidak di Pangrango, dengan perubahan lokasi kawah dan endapan gunungapi. Lokasi episentrum gempa Cianjur ditunjukkan.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHVdZvY_xZYqLc7ZgNLZs8ZF9iAtJvH8XESmOXi7904YvaYkuUr4PtSXoglGiOrLQ53alify42sNo_AV6iKwqa8-27gX5pqxJlSZ1ChdyHKsz4fIarw78QW2Pb9Tt3w35Sh3e1X00UYyLRUtzCc9zaUv6tmE5wxTKSkf5DIcxftjRsVlf1Pj7P4IRdnA/s626/Struktur%20gunungapi.%20Gunung%20Gede%20adalah%20dari%20tipe%20gunungapi%20kerucut%20dan%20komposit%20(stratovolcano)..jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="580" data-original-width="626" height="296" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHVdZvY_xZYqLc7ZgNLZs8ZF9iAtJvH8XESmOXi7904YvaYkuUr4PtSXoglGiOrLQ53alify42sNo_AV6iKwqa8-27gX5pqxJlSZ1ChdyHKsz4fIarw78QW2Pb9Tt3w35Sh3e1X00UYyLRUtzCc9zaUv6tmE5wxTKSkf5DIcxftjRsVlf1Pj7P4IRdnA/s320/Struktur%20gunungapi.%20Gunung%20Gede%20adalah%20dari%20tipe%20gunungapi%20kerucut%20dan%20komposit%20(stratovolcano)..jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face=""Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; font-size: 15px; text-align: start;">Struktur gunungapi. Gunung Gede adalah dari tipe gunungapi kerucut dan komposit (stratovolcano). Kedalaman kantong magma bisa dari 1,5-15 km, tetapi kebanyakan di antara 6-10 km.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8JAcNUcb-hLNsJtejgUjmKnVKKyfZtN3FtlbfF12pHV1nqOM58EAqgbSgWqE0R9dfaGTF45MFEaXe0Wzc0_mH9DCt2jyNksnaeV-HehnFmwBIkfHiOGxhWcQ_sH3G10CvTg2AXHbPQHkvBYnAX37cBR7vGOr8FFd_7F-szRGGnwM2oLs7CKRmrkAHjQ/s1048/Status%20Gunung%20Gede%2025%20November%202022%20Level%201normal,%20tidak%20bertambah%20aktif%20setelah%20gempa%20Cianjur%2021%20Nov.%202022..jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="532" data-original-width="1048" height="162" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8JAcNUcb-hLNsJtejgUjmKnVKKyfZtN3FtlbfF12pHV1nqOM58EAqgbSgWqE0R9dfaGTF45MFEaXe0Wzc0_mH9DCt2jyNksnaeV-HehnFmwBIkfHiOGxhWcQ_sH3G10CvTg2AXHbPQHkvBYnAX37cBR7vGOr8FFd_7F-szRGGnwM2oLs7CKRmrkAHjQ/s320/Status%20Gunung%20Gede%2025%20November%202022%20Level%201normal,%20tidak%20bertambah%20aktif%20setelah%20gempa%20Cianjur%2021%20Nov.%202022..jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face=""Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; font-size: 15px; text-align: start;">Status Gunung Gede (25 November 2022): Level 1/normal, tidak bertambah aktif setelah gempa Cianjur 21 Nov. 2022. (PVMBG)</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyFa9_JF1Fv2K-hz6YSKdxbhjO6U3fVPyVEiMyTL92WVWKqlcFTHFsKa15PNTd9T-NL2CtJj_jXLwph7pQ4beTAuwtKHHcwYlPqGSD9XPRf_7UP58YeMHUbaO5VinW-2ayy_9WB6SptT9EmHdIQHj_2T8Dr__lVGVOblKMcyR5dFpDk3mTaxARIcHgpA/s856/Status%20gunungapi%20(PVMBG).%20Status%20Gn.%20Gede%20level%20normal%20-%20tidak%20ada%20peningkatan%20aktivitas%20gunungapi.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="434" data-original-width="856" height="162" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyFa9_JF1Fv2K-hz6YSKdxbhjO6U3fVPyVEiMyTL92WVWKqlcFTHFsKa15PNTd9T-NL2CtJj_jXLwph7pQ4beTAuwtKHHcwYlPqGSD9XPRf_7UP58YeMHUbaO5VinW-2ayy_9WB6SptT9EmHdIQHj_2T8Dr__lVGVOblKMcyR5dFpDk3mTaxARIcHgpA/s320/Status%20gunungapi%20(PVMBG).%20Status%20Gn.%20Gede%20level%20normal%20-%20tidak%20ada%20peningkatan%20aktivitas%20gunungapi.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face=""Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; font-size: 15px; text-align: start;">Status gunungapi (PVMBG). Status Gn. Gede level normal - tidak ada peningkatan aktivitas gunungapi</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><span face=""Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; font-size: 15px; text-align: start;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><span face=""Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; font-size: 15px; text-align: start;">Sumber:</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 15px; text-align: center;"><span face="Segoe UI Historic, Segoe UI, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="color: #050505;">https://m.facebook.com/story.php?story_fbid=pfbid02hu6fjFUU4vL5V3VHEMxbMjdY3y8iXAEfSUN5842Ankhft5mTbQBm8s5fUga6hEdTl&id=100004098920754&mibextid=Nif5oz (Awang Setyana)</span></span></div><br /><span face=""Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; font-size: 15px; text-align: start;"><br /></span></div><br /><span face=""Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; font-size: 15px; text-align: start;"><br /></span></div><br /><span face=""Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; font-size: 15px; text-align: start;"><br /></span></div><br /><span face=""Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; font-size: 15px; text-align: start;"><br /></span></div><br /><div dir="auto"><br /></div></div></span><span class="fullpost">
</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-66636750954851450172022-11-23T17:09:00.001-08:002022-11-23T17:10:52.192-08:00Gempa mengguncang Cianjur Jawa Barat<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQLO5F9qtKKsKiJuV33PiWCImw5YMT1tKJcR1otnmRtlR-PPbNXfZk2ECg4hO5outNLdJQ3nbV7-5RgSek-QrxQYEF_N6T_dx483_ER7gcci_LxATi1axpHcn7LSPfK13OtnChPD8QBxkO_ipzOOa99hZ42AOE5g-Nhm2NKLWS5-PxHhZz2R_uO9dRZw/s720/WhatsApp%20Image%202022-11-23%20at%2013.38.29.jpeg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="388" data-original-width="720" height="172" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQLO5F9qtKKsKiJuV33PiWCImw5YMT1tKJcR1otnmRtlR-PPbNXfZk2ECg4hO5outNLdJQ3nbV7-5RgSek-QrxQYEF_N6T_dx483_ER7gcci_LxATi1axpHcn7LSPfK13OtnChPD8QBxkO_ipzOOa99hZ42AOE5g-Nhm2NKLWS5-PxHhZz2R_uO9dRZw/s320/WhatsApp%20Image%202022-11-23%20at%2013.38.29.jpeg" width="320" /></span></a></div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span><p class="has-text-align-justify" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #444444; font-size: 18px; line-height: 32.4px; margin: 0px 0px 1.1em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"></span></p><a name='more'></a><span style="font-family: arial;">Sekitar pukul 13.21.10 WIB. Gempa mengguncang Cianjur Jawa Barat. Kejadian itu, terjadi, Senin, 21 November 2022. Magnitudo 5,6 dengam kedalam 10 km. Pusat Gempat terjadi di 6.84 LS – 107.05 BT, atau berada di Darat 10 Km Barat Daya Kab. Cianjur. Catatan di hari pertama, diduga sudah ada 46 orang yang tewas, dan sekitar 700 orang mengalami luka. Sementara kerusakan material dan lingkungan, belum diketahui besarannya.</span><p></p><div class="wp-block-image" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #444444; font-size: 18px;"><figure class="aligncenter size-large" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: both; height: auto; margin-block: 0px; margin-inline: 0px; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; text-align: center;"><a href="https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/gempa5.jpg" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #ba2f1d; margin: 0px auto; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.1s ease-in-out 0s, background-color 0.1s ease-in-out 0s;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img alt="" class="wp-image-3551" data-attachment-id="3551" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-caption="" data-image-description="" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"0"}" data-image-title="gempa5" data-large-file="https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/gempa5.jpg?w=630" data-medium-file="https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/gempa5.jpg?w=300" data-orig-file="https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/gempa5.jpg" data-orig-size="630,573" data-permalink="https://dede.wordpress.com/2022/11/21/gempa-cianjur-21-11-2022/gempa5/" sizes="(max-width: 630px) 100vw, 630px" src="https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/gempa5.jpg?w=630" srcset="https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/gempa5.jpg 630w, https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/gempa5.jpg?w=150 150w, https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/gempa5.jpg?w=300 300w" style="border: 1px solid rgb(238, 238, 238); box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; line-height: 1; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 5px; vertical-align: bottom;" /></span></a></figure></div><p class="has-text-align-justify" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #444444; font-size: 18px; line-height: 32.4px; margin: 0px 0px 1.1em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Menurut BMKG, getaran gempa ini, sampai terasa pada sejumlah daerah di sekitar Jawa Barat. Misalnya dengan sakala MMI V-VI Cianjur, IV – V Garut, IV – V Sukabumi, III Cimahi, III Lembang, III Kota Bandung, III Cikalong Wetan, III Rangkasbitung, III Bogor, III Bayah, II – III Rancaekek, II – III Tangerang Selatan, II – III DKI Jakarta, II – III Depok, dan skala MMI II – III Tangerang, III Bakauheni.</span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><span face="Ubuntu, sans-serif" id="more-3549" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #444444; font-size: 18px;"></span><span face="Ubuntu, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #444444; font-size: 18px;"></span></span><p class="has-text-align-justify" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #444444; font-size: 18px; line-height: 32.4px; margin: 0px 0px 1.1em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Skala MMI, yaitu Modified Mercally Intensity dicetuskan oleh Giuseppe Mercalli pada tahun 1902. MMI digunakan untuk mengukur seberapa besar kerusakan yang ditimbulkan oleh gempa. Tidak ada cara penghitungan karena ukuran ini ditentukan berdasar hasil pengamatan dari orang yang mengalami atau melihat gempa. Karena dihitung berdasar pengamatan, skala MMI ini tidak sama di setiap tempat. Lokasi yang dekat dengan episentrum (pusat gempa) harusnya memiliki skala MMI yang besar.</span></p><p class="has-text-align-justify" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #444444; font-size: 18px; line-height: 32.4px; margin: 0px 0px 1.1em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Pertanyaan, selanjutnya mengapa, gempa di Cianjur ini, masuk kategori dangkal, tetapi menyebabkan kerusakan yang cukup parah ?</span></p><div class="wp-block-image" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #444444; font-size: 18px;"><figure class="aligncenter size-large" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: both; height: auto; margin-block: 0px; margin-inline: 0px; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; text-align: center;"><a href="https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/20221121132110.mmi_.jpg" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #ba2f1d; margin: 0px auto; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.1s ease-in-out 0s, background-color 0.1s ease-in-out 0s;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img alt="" class="wp-image-3553" data-attachment-id="3553" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-caption="" data-image-description="" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"0"}" data-image-title="20221121132110.mmi_" data-large-file="https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/20221121132110.mmi_.jpg?w=612" data-medium-file="https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/20221121132110.mmi_.jpg?w=256" data-orig-file="https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/20221121132110.mmi_.jpg" data-orig-size="612,717" data-permalink="https://dede.wordpress.com/2022/11/21/gempa-cianjur-21-11-2022/20221121132110-mmi_/" sizes="(max-width: 612px) 100vw, 612px" src="https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/20221121132110.mmi_.jpg?w=612" srcset="https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/20221121132110.mmi_.jpg 612w, https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/20221121132110.mmi_.jpg?w=128 128w, https://dede.files.wordpress.com/2022/11/20221121132110.mmi_.jpg?w=256 256w" style="border: 1px solid rgb(238, 238, 238); box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; line-height: 1; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 5px; vertical-align: bottom;" /></span></a></figure></div><p class="has-text-align-justify" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #444444; font-size: 18px; line-height: 32.4px; margin: 0px 0px 1.1em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Pertama, kawasan Cianjur dan juga beberap daerah di sekitarnya, masuk wilayah yang berada di jalur-aktif gempa. Bahkan menurut pihak BMKG, Cianjur, dan juga Bandung dalam beberapa titik di Jawa Barat, yang berada di kawasan seismic aktif dan kompleks. Sebab itu, tidak mengherankan, bila kemudian, jika ada geteran gempa yang dangkal, kendati pun kecil, potensial menyebabkan kerusakan yang sangat parah.</span></p><p class="has-text-align-justify" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #444444; font-size: 18px; line-height: 32.4px; margin: 0px 0px 1.1em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Kedua, pusat gempa ada di daratan. Dengan posisi pusat gempa serupa itu, atau episentrum di daratan, maka cepat rambat getaran akan sangat terasa ke berbagai daerah di sekitarnya.</span></p><p class="has-text-align-justify" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #444444; font-size: 18px; line-height: 32.4px; margin: 0px 0px 1.1em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Ketiga, yaitu Hiposentrum (pusat gempa dalam bumi), masuk kategori dangkal, yaitu sekitar kurang dari 15 km. Dengan posisi gempa dangkal seperti ini, dan juga berada di jalur gempa aktif, maka getaran dangkal dan kecil pun, potensial menyebabkan kerusakan yang sangat parah.Menurut Yoga Mahardhika KP, gempa bumi dangkal cenderung merusak kendati magnitudonya tidak terlalu besar karena lokasinya dekat dengan permukaan tanah sehingga energi yang dilepaskan terasa kuat, berbeda dengan gempa bumi dalam yang getarannya relatif lebih lemah karena gelombang seismik harus merambat berkilo-kilometer ke permukaan sehingga mengalami pengurangan atau atenuasi energi. (2019,<a href="https://www.nusabali.com/" rel="nofollow" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #ba2f1d; margin-bottom: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.1s ease-in-out 0s, background-color 0.1s ease-in-out 0s;">https://www.nusabali.com/</a>).</span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #444444; font-size: 18px; line-height: 32.4px; margin: 0px 0px 1.1em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Keempat, Cianjur, dan beberapa kota di Jawa Barat, masuk pada kategori jalur gempa yang kompleks. Lebih dar satu jalur seismik aktif. Karena itu, getaran kecil sekalipun, potensial berdampak merusak pada sejumlah daerah di sekitar bencana gempa.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #444444; font-size: 18px; line-height: 32.4px; margin: 0px 0px 1.1em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumber : https://dede.wordpress.com/2022/11/21/gempa-cianjur-21-11-2022/</span></p><span class="fullpost">
</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-60592908870449782732022-11-23T16:22:00.002-08:002022-11-23T16:22:58.265-08:00Mengenal Patahan Cimandiri<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicJIHtWqAldlEB_4sltrhAkrXhljS5RPGu-vglCAfegdKfNziR7B6uqzB7XHsiLpK3jxzi8meHPoI0Ymkur9rM-MrfobfEzp1CMxJNkLAauCSM700gd2JfIdKrqJNLOVJyCiBzP5q6KT_b1hKts0fbhjKx6kn0EpcSFs7iHqukA6iEY1uZiP1ufm8GBw/s696/WhatsApp%20Image%202022-11-22%20at%2023.31.25.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="684" data-original-width="696" height="314" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicJIHtWqAldlEB_4sltrhAkrXhljS5RPGu-vglCAfegdKfNziR7B6uqzB7XHsiLpK3jxzi8meHPoI0Ymkur9rM-MrfobfEzp1CMxJNkLAauCSM700gd2JfIdKrqJNLOVJyCiBzP5q6KT_b1hKts0fbhjKx6kn0EpcSFs7iHqukA6iEY1uZiP1ufm8GBw/s320/WhatsApp%20Image%202022-11-22%20at%2023.31.25.jpeg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><div><br /></div><span><a name='more'></a></span><div><br /></div><div>Selama ini kita tahu bahwa hanya Patahan Lembang saja yang banyak dikenal masyarakat Jawa Barat karena patahan ini banyak dibahas di media2 masa karena potensi bahayanya dan posisinya yang dekat dengan jantung Jawa Barat yaitu Kota Bandung yang populasinya sangat padat. Namun tak banyak yang tahu bahwa ada satu lagi Patahan yang tak kalah berbahayanya selain Patahan Lembang, yaitu Patahan Cimandiri</div><div><br /></div><div>Padahal Patahan Cimandiri ini lebih aktif dan lebih panjang daripada Patahan Lembang. Buktinya adalah Patahan Cimandiri ini lebih sering menghasilkan gempa bumi yang bisa terjadi puluhan kali dalam setahun walaupun hanya berupa gempa2 kecil dibawah skala M3.0 saja yang tak banyak terasa oleh masyarakat disekitarnya.</div><div><br /></div><div>Lokasi Patahan ini sama berbahayanya seperti Patahan Lembang karena patahan ini melewati kota2 besar di Jawa Barat mulai dari Pelabuhan Ratu, Sukabumi, Cianjur dan Padalarang. Ditambah Patahan Cimandiri ini memiliki banyak cabang patahan lain yang tersebar disekitarnya yang menambah sumber gempa dari patahan ini. Patahan ini memiliki mekanisme pergerakan umumnya strike slip atau bergerak mendatar berlawanan arah dimana bagian kiri bergerak ke kanan dan bagian kanan bergerak ke kiri.</div><div><br /></div><div>Sesar Cimandiri ini bisa dikatakan sebagai sesar paling tua di Jawa Barat karena sudah ada sebelum Patahan Lembang tercipta. Patahan Cimandiri ini adalah patahan yang bertanggung jawab membentuk garis lurusan pegunungan di sekitar selatan Sukabumi. Patahan Cimandiri memiliki panjang sekitar 100 km yang terbagi kedalam 3 segmen yaitu Cimandiri, Nyalindung-Cibeber dan Rajamandala dengan kecepatan pergerakan mulai 3 hingga 4 mm/tahun. Masing2 segmen memiliki potensi gempa maksimal mulai skala M6.0-M6.5 dan jika keseluruhan patahan bergerak bersamaan maka kekuatan maksimal gempanya adalah sekitar M6.9 hingga M7.2.</div><div><br /></div><div>Patahan ini hanya berjarak sekitar 10-12 km dari Sukabumi, dan sekitar 12-15 km dari Cianjur. Walau gempa2 ini tak selalu terjadi tepat di pusat patahannya. Karena pernah juga beberapa kali gempa terjadi yang hanya jaraknya sekitar 2-5 dari Sukabumi dan Cianjur walau berupa skala2 kecil. Bentuk patahan ini juga bisa terlihat dari Google Maps yang bentuknya berupa kelurusan pegunungan dari Teluk Pelabuhan Ratu hingga Padalarang dan Patahan ini bersambung hingga Patahan Lembang lalu bersambung lagi ke Patahan Cilacap</div><div><br /></div><div>Beberapa gempa2 kecil dan dangkal yang beberapa kali terasa di Cianjur dan Sukabumi adalah dari aktifitas patahan ini. Patahan ini lebih aktif daripada patahan lain di Jawa Barat. Rata2 gempa yang tercipta dari patahan ini adalah sekitar skala M2.0 hingga M4.0 dan jarang sekali melewati skala M4.0. Berdasarkan sejarah gempa merusak dari patahan ini pernah terjadi pada tahun 1900, 1910, 1972, 1973, 1948 dan terakhir tahun1982. Gempa2 besar yang terjadi dari patahan ini rata2 terasa hingga Jakarta dan sebagian Jawa Barat.</div><div><br /></div><div>Gempa pada 14 Januari 1900</div><div>Gempa ini terjadi disekitar Kota Sukabumi dan gempa ini menimbulkan banyak kerusakan namun tak diketahui berapa banyak korban jiwa serta kerusakan akibat gempa ini. Kekuatan gempa juga tidak diketahui. Namun gempa ini diperkirakan terasa dengan skala maksimal MMI VII dan terasa hingga Banten, Bogor dan Jakarta</div><div><br /></div><div>Gempa pada 18 Desember 1910</div><div>Tak diketahui berapa kekuatan gempa ini. Namun gempa ini diperkirakan terasa dalam skala MMI VII di Sukabumi dan Cianjur. Kemudian gempa muncul kembali pada 21 Januari 1912 dan kemungkinan ini merupakan gempa susulan dari gempa sebelumnya.</div><div><br /></div><div>Tak banyak data lengkap gempa dimasa lalu dari patahan Cimandiri ini. Karena kurangnya sumber yang ada. Sebelum tahun 1900 pun sudah banyak gempa terjadi dari patahan ini. Mulai skala M4.5 hingga M6.5 hanya saja minim sekali infonya.</div><div><br /></div><div>Untuk potensi dimasa depan, Patahan ini masih menyimpan ancaman gempa untuk Jawa Barat. Hanya saja tak diketahui kapan gempa akan terjadi. Jadi untuk antisipasinya adalah coba lebih dekat mengenal patahan ini agar kita tahu mengenai ancaman, potensi dan bahaya nya dari patahan ini. Karena di zaman sekarang populasi disekitar patahan ini sudah sangat padat, ditambah gempa2 dari patahan ini selalu memiliki kedalaman yang dangkal dan merusak. Salah satu dari 3 patahan di Jawa Barat yang sering membuat heboh Jawa Barat ini wajib untuk anda kenal potensinya dan keberadaannya.</div><div><br /></div><div>Sumber : rangkuman beberapa artikel dan sejarah</div><span class="fullpost">
</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-17466899445919285592022-11-01T17:48:00.001-07:002022-11-01T17:50:08.623-07:00Soal Pilihan Ganda Materi Peta<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCcMonie2AYnQJ7s6ZOk7uPx1iEuF-0NKmyelnoHZiv-RMKhVc4ZUvJ53wC6WH_zcdCLrP7izJWrNlLHxdcYhK6DMXWSh22sVqQ7sep4Gv-9TN2ITKo_Jm4j8_w3C8SbmJzs6dPHc3iHnIJcsxxaEIHH1Nt1EfNI_N0OTsoX9AHc685QSqc4BQ9NLQGg/s711/3.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="411" data-original-width="711" height="185" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCcMonie2AYnQJ7s6ZOk7uPx1iEuF-0NKmyelnoHZiv-RMKhVc4ZUvJ53wC6WH_zcdCLrP7izJWrNlLHxdcYhK6DMXWSh22sVqQ7sep4Gv-9TN2ITKo_Jm4j8_w3C8SbmJzs6dPHc3iHnIJcsxxaEIHH1Nt1EfNI_N0OTsoX9AHc685QSqc4BQ9NLQGg/s320/3.png" width="320" /></a></div><br /><span><a name='more'></a></span><h3 style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.5rem; margin: 1.25rem 0px;"><br /></h3><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlPJKlvgoqcU5O2mzgeCeSjaAsOYOFGJWvdea-g-qEaulgPoNZfI1H2tOHjU-K4uX_mF-xEBI-T39x3qtG70xCokyd4nWcWT_e4kNh1sWNi2tHTj13PktI1EXncZqan9s0g9uiaj6yTbPh/s1600/Image.png" style="background-color: white; border-style: none; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; height: auto; max-width: 100%;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;" /><span face="Roboto, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-size: 16px;">1. Simbol peta yang bersifat linier dapat digunakan untuk bentukan-bentukan sebagai berikut, kecuali ….</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;" /><span face="Roboto, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-size: 16px;">a. Jalan raya</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;" /><span face="Roboto, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-size: 16px;">b. Sungai</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;" /><span face="Roboto, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-size: 16px;">c. Rel kereta api</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;" /><span face="Roboto, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-size: 16px;">d. Pusat pusat pelayanan sosial</span><div style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"><br /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Jawaban: </div><div style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">d. Pusat pusat pelayanan sosial</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; height: auto;"> <br /><br /><div>2. Gambaran satu objek permukaan bumi yang disajikan disebut dengan peta …<br />a. Umum<br />b. Topografi<br />c. Tematik<br />d. Chorografi</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>c. Tematik</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>3. Kegunaan inzet pada sebuah peta adalah untuk menunjukkan ….<br />a. Informasi-informasi yang ada pada peta<br />b. Arti simbol-simbol yang digunakan pada peta<br />c. Isi peta secara garis besar<br />d. Lokasi daerah yang dipetakan pada kedudukan sekitar yang lebih luas</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>d. Lokasi daerah yang dipetakan pada kedudukan sekitar yang lebih luas</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>4. Simbol yang terbaik pada peta untuk memperhatikan persebaran sesuatu adalah ….<br />a. Lingkaran<br />b. Titik<br />c. Garis<br />d. Batang</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>b. Titik</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>5. Peta berasal dari bahasa Yunai yaitu mappa, yang artinya ?<br />a. Gambaran Bumi<br />b. Tiruan Bumi<br />c. Kain penutup meja<br />d. Hamparan daratan</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>c. Kain penutup meja</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>6. Unsur peta yang berguna untuk menentukan letak suatu tempat adalah ?<br />a. Mata angin<br />b. Garis lintang dan bujur<br />c. Inset data<br />d. Proyeksi peta</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>b. Garis lintang dan bujur</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>7. Hal yang tidak perlu dalam suatu peta yaitu ?<br />a. Judul<br />b. Skala peta<br />c. Harga peta<br />d. Garis astronomis</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>c. Harga peta</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>8. Suatu cara yang memberikan hubungan antara posisi titik-titik dimuka bumi dan pada bidang datar peta disebut ?<br />a. Skala<br />b. Legenda<br />c. Inset<br />d. Proyeksi</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban:</div><div>d. Proyeksi</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>9. Untuk memetakan benu, laut di sekitar kutub bumi, distorsi terlampau besar jika menggunakan proyeksi ?<br />a. Zenital<br />b. Azimutal murni<br />c. Gnomonik<br />d. Stereografik</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>b. Azimutal murni</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>10. Persebaran daerah jalur gempa bumi di Indonesia dapat dikategorikan peta berdasarkan objeknya yaitu …<br />a. Chorografi<br />b. Rupa bumi<br />c. Tematik<br />d. Kadaster</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>c. Tematik</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>11. Proyeksi peta dalam kartografi sangat diperlukan<br />a. Memperbesar peta<br />b. Menggambarkan muka bumi yang bulat ke gambar datar<br />c. Memperkecil peta<br />d. Mengetahui luas daerah pada peta<br /></div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban:</div><div>b. Menggambarkan muka bumi yang bulat ke gambar datar</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>12. Peta kadaster merupakan salah satu jenis peta yang umumnya memiliki skala ….<br />a. 1 : 100 — 1 : 5.000<br />b. 1 : 5.000 — 1 : 250.000<br />c. 1 : 250.000 — 1 : 500.000<br />d. 1 : 500.000 — 1.000.000</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>a. 1 : 100 — 1 : 5.000</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>13. Salah satu syarat peta apabila skala peta dikalikan dengan jarak pada peta menghasilkan jarak yang sama di lapangan. Syarat peta yang dimaksud adalah.....<br />a. Ekuivalen<br />b. Ekuidistan<br />c. Legenda<br />d. Konform</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>b. Ekuidistan</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>14. Penggunaan simbol linier pada peta topografi, biasanya menggambarkan bahwa daerah yang bersangkutan adalah ….<br />a. Dataran rendah<br />b. Dataran tinggi<br />c. Perairan laut<br />d. Pegunungan</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>c. Perairan laut</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>15. Garis pada peta topografi yang menghubungkan titk-titik ketinggian yang sama disebut ….<br />a. Isoseista<br />b. Isohyet<br />c. Astronomis<br />d. Kontur</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>d. Kontur</div><div> </div><div><br /></div><div>16. Pada peta yang berskala 1: 50.000, panjang skala graris yang mencerminkan jarak 3 km di lapangan adalah ….<br />a. 1 cm<br />b. 2 cm<br />c. 3 cm<br />d. 6 cm</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>d. 6 cm</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>17. Diketahui sebuah peta berskala 1 : 21.000 akan diperbesar menjadi tiga kali. maka skala peta tersebut berubah menjadi ….<br />a. 1 : 42.030<br />b. 1 : 63.000<br />c. 1 : 7.000<br />d. 1 :11.000</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>c. 1 : 7.000</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>18. Berikut adalah contoh peta khusus, kecuali ….<br />a. Peta Transportasi<br />b. Peta Geologi<br />c. Peta Curah Hujan<br />d. Peta Topografi</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>d. Peta Topografi</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>19. Secara umum, simbol dapat dibedakan menjadi …<br />a. Titik, dot dan area<br />b. Dot, line dan garis<br />c. Area, titik dan garis<br />d. Garis, titik dan kuantitatif</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban:</div><div>b. Dot, line dan garis</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>20. Tulisan pada peta yang bercetak miring (italic) digunakan untuk memperjelas objek seperti…<br />a. Bandara<br />b. Kota<br />c. Dataran<br />d. Perairan</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>d. Perairan</div><div style="height: auto;"> </div><div>21. Keterangan dari simbol-simbol merupakan defenisi dari komponen peta …<br />a. Inset<br />b. Simbol<br />c. Legenda<br />d. Lettering</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban:</div><div>c. Legenda</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>22. Diketahui sebuah peta berskala 1 : 21.000 akan diperbesar menjadi tiga kali. maka skala peta tersebut berubah menjadi ….<br />a. 1 : 42.030<br />b. 1 : 63.000<br />c. 1 : 7.000<br />d. 1 :11.000</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>c. 1 : 7.000</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>23. Pembesaran dan atau pengecilan peta melalui jasa fotokopi, hanya akan cocok bagi peta yang menggunakan skala grafis sebab ….<br />a. Skala grafis tidak terhingga<br />b. Skala grafis fleksibel<br />c. Tampak lebih menarik dengan skala grafis<br />d. Lebih mudah menggambamya</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>b. Skala grafis fleksibel</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>24. Peta sebagai alat bantu dalam mengkaji geografi. Ahli dalam pembuatan peta disebut dengan ...<br />a. Seismograf<br />b. Kartograf<br />c. Theograf<br />d. Petagrafer</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>b. Kartograf</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>25. Peta merupakan sebagai alat penting dalam geografi karena mempunyai beberapa fungsi kecuali ….<br />a. Menunjukan posisi atau lokasi suatu wilayah di permukaan bumi<br />b. Menggambarkan bentuk berbagai gejala di permukaan bumi<br />c. Menggambarkan kondisi fisik dan kondisi sosial suatu wilayah<br />d. Sebagai pendukung kegiatan pemerintahan</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>d. Sebagai pendukung kegiatan pemerintahan</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>26. Dalam pembuatan peta sangat memerlukan bantuan proyeksi sebab ….<br />a. Kelihatan lebih menarik<br />b. Tampak lebih indah<br />c. Mengurangi tingkat kesalahan<br />d. Peta pada dasarnya merupakan proyeksi</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>c. Mengurangi tingkat kesalahan</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>27. Pemberian nama terhadap berbagai objek yang digambar melalui peta, termasuk pada tahap ….<br />a. Notasi<br />b. Editing<br />c. Digitasi<br />d. Konversi</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>a. Notasi</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>28. Jarak 5 km di lapangan akan bergambar di suatu peta berskala 1 : 60.000 dengan jarak ….<br />a. 5 cm<br />b. 5,5 cm<br />c. 6 cm<br />d. 8 cm</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban:</div><div>d. 8 cm</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>29. Garis-garis pada peta yang menghubungkan tempat-tempat yang memiliki jumlah dan distribusi fenomena geosfer yang sama dinamakan ….<br />a. Isotherm<br />b. Isobar<br />c. Isoseista<br />d. Isopleth</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban:</div><div>d. Isopleth</div></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"><br /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"><br /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">1. Jika jarak di lapangan 4 km, maka jarak pada peta yang berskala 1 : 200.000 adalah....<br />a. 2 cm<br />b. 20 cm<br />c. 2 km<br />d. 2.000 cm<div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>a. 2 cm</div><div><br /><br /><div>2. Garis yang terletak di bagian peta yang berfungsi membatasi peta dengan komponennya disebut....<br />a. Garis tepi peta<br />b. Penunjuk arah<br />c. Skala peta<br />d. Simbol peta</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>a. Garis tepi peta</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>3. Berikut ini yang termasuk peta tematik, kecuali....<br />a. Peta prakiraan cuaca<br />b. Peta ibu kota Jakarta<br />c. Peta curah hujan<br />d. Peta penggunaan lahan</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: <br />b. Peta ibu kota Jakarta</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>4. Menurut isinya, peta jenis tanah, peta geologi, dan peta administrasi termasuk dalam penggolongan peta....<br />a. Dasar<br />b. Tematik<br />c. Umum<br />d. Kadaster</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>b. Tematik</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>5. Komponen peta yang dapat digunakan sebagai pedoman untuk mengetahui ukuran luas dan jarak adalah....<br />a. Skala peta<br />b. Judul peta<br />c. Orientasi<br />d. Legenda</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>a. Skala peta</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>6. Ilmu dan seni dalam pembuatan peta disebut....<br />a. Geografi<br />b. Geologi<br />c. Kartografi<br />d. Oceanografi</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>c. Kartografi</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>7. Peta dengan skala 1 : 250.000 – 1 : 500.000 digolongkan pada peta....<br />a. Kadaster<br />b. Skala besar<br />c. Skala kecil<br />d. Skala sedang</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>d. Skala sedang</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>8. Penulisan judul pada peta hendaknya menggunakan huruf....<br />a. Yang indah dan simetris<br />b. Kapital dan tegak<br />c. Miring dan di sembarang tempat<br />d. Miring dan simetris</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>b. Kapital dan tegak</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>9. Simbol titik (dot) dapat digunakan untuk menggambarkan....<br />a. Interaksi penduduk<br />b. Interelasi penduduk<br />c. Persebaran penduduk<br />d. Letak suatu tempat</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban:</div><div>d. Letak suatu tempat</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>10. Kenampakan perairan pada peta biasanya digunakan warna....<br />a. Kuning<br />b. Hijau<br />c. Biru<br />d. Putih</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>c. Biru</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>11. Legenda peta adalah....<br />a. Keterangan dari simbol-simbol pada peta agar lebih mudah dimengerti oleh pembaca<br />b. Garis untuk menentukan lokasi<br />c. Semua tulisan dan angka untuk memperjelas peta<br />d. Tanda-tanda konvensional peta</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: <br />a. Keterangan dari simbol-simbol pada peta agar lebih mudah dimengerti oleh pembaca</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>12. Proyeksi peta yang diperoleh dengan cara memproyeksikan permukaan globe ke bidang silinder disebut….<br />a. Proyeksi kerucut<br />b. Proyeksi azimuth<br />c. Proyeksi konvensional<br />d. Proyeksi silinder</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>d. Proyeksi silinder</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>13. Suatu benda yang digunakan untuk merekem objek-objek di alam disebut….<br />a. Sensor<br />b. Objek<br />c. Hamburan relight<br />d. Tenaga elektromagnetik</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>a. Sensor</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>14. Tokoh geografi yang membuat peta pertama kali adalah….<br />a. Ibnu Kaldun<br />b. Cladius Ptolomeus<br />c. G.T.Renner<br />d. Glen T. Trewarta</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div>b. Cladius Ptolomeus</div></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"><br /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"><br /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"><div>15. Huruf Romawi biasanya digunakan untuk menuliskan....<br />a. Judul<br />b. Legenda<br />c. Nama ibu kota<br />d. Nama sungai</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>c. Nama ibu kota</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>16. Salah satu syarat memilih jenis proyeksi peta adalah conform, artinya....<br />a. Luas peta harus tepat an benar<br />b. Bentuk peta harus sama dengan bentuk aslinya<br />c. Jarak peta harus benar<br />d. Arah peta harus benar</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>b. Bentuk peta harus sama dengan bentuk aslinya</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>17. Skala yang dinyatakan dengan kalimat disebut....<br />a. Skala verbal<br />b. Skala angka<br />c. Skala garis<br />d. Skala grafis</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>a. Skala verbal</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>18. Jarak dari rumah Romi ke sekolah adalah 8 km. Jika Romi ingin memetakan dengan skala 1 : 500.000, maka jarak dari rumah ke sekolah pada peta adalah....<br />a. 0,625 cm<br />b. 0,16 cm<br />c. 1,6 cm<br />d. 6,16 cm</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>c. 1,6 cm</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>19. Gambaran permukaan bumi pada bidang datar yang digambarkan dengan menggunakan skala dan dilengkapi dengan tulisan serta simbol merupakan pengertian dari....<br />a. Peta<br />b. Globe<br />c. Atlas<br />d. Relief muka bumi</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>a. Peta</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>20. Gambar pada peta yang menunjukkan lokasi daerah yang dipetakan terhadap daerah di sekitarnya yang lebih luas disebut....<br />a. Judul peta<br />b. Inset peta<br />c. Sumber peta<br />d. Legenda peta</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>b. Inset peta</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>21. Perbandingan antara jarak di peta dengan jarak sebenarnya di permukaan bumi disebut....<br />a. Legenda<br />b. Orientasi</div><div>c. Skala peta<br />d. Relief</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>c. Skala peta</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>22. Jarak pada peta antara kota X dan kota Y adalah 5 cm. Jika jarak yang sebenarnya 15 km, maka peta tersebut berskala.....<br />a. 1 : 3.000<br />b. 1 : 30.000<br />c. 1 : 300.000<br />d. 1 : 7.500</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>c. 1 : 300.000</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>23. Tiruan bentuk dari sebuah bumi yang mendekati bentuk aslinya disebut....<br />a. Peta<br />b. Alias<br />c. Citra foto<br />d. Globe</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>d. Globe</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>24. Luas suatu bidang dapat diketahui dengan cara berikut, kecuali....<br />a. Pembuatan kisi atau kotak<br />b. Pembuatan potongan garis<br />c. Pembuatan segitiga<br />d. Pengukuran ketinggian</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>d. Pengukuran ketinggian</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>25. Peta topografi termasuk peta….<br />a. Umum<br />b. Korografi<br />c. Dunia<br />d. Khusus</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>a. Umum</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>26. Peta skala 1:250.000, artinya tiap 1 cm pada peta sama dengan….<br />a. 25 cm di lapangan<br />b. 250 cm di lapangan<br />c. 2.500 cm di lapangan<br />d. 2,5 km di lapangan</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: <br />d. 2,5 km di lapangan</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>27. Simbol garis untuk memperlihatkan fenomena yang bersifat….<br />a. Kuantitatif<br />b. Kualitatif<br />c. Tematik<br />d. Umum</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>b. Kualitatif</div></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"><br /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"><br /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"><div>28. Kenampakan vegetasi dan dataran rendah pada peta menggunakan warna….<br />a. Hijau<br />b. Biru<br />c. Cokelat<br />d. Hitam</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>a. Hijau</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>29. Peta kecil yang menunjukkan lokasi daerah yang dipetakan terhadap daerah di sekitarnya yang lebih luas disebut….<br />a. Peta korografi<br />b. Peta umum<br />c. Inset<br />d. Legenda</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: <br /></div><div>c. Inset</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>30. Gambaran konvensional dari permukaan bumi yang diperkecil disebut…<br />a. Sketsa<br />b. Mozaik<br />c. Peta<br />d. Desain grafis</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>c. Peta</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>31. Proyeksi peta yang menggunakan bidang datar disebut proyeksi….<br />a. Azimuthal<br />b. Kerucut<br />c. Silinder<br />d. Normal</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>a. Azimuthal</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>32. Suatu ukuran dari unsur dengan ukuran tertentu yang mempunyai tingkatan, misalnya kota besar-kota kecil digolongkan ke dalam data….<br />a. Nominal<br />b. Interval<br />c. Ordinal<br />d. Ratio</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>b. Interval</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>33. Menurut bentuknya, simbol pada peta diklasifikasikan menjadi…..<br />a. Titik, lingkaran, dan garis<br />b. Titik, segitiga, dan bujur sangkar<br />c. Titik, garis, dan piktorial<br />d. Titik, garis, dan bidang</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>d. Titik, garis, dan bidang</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>34. Untuk menggambarkan simbol sungai dan jalan maka dapat digunakan simbol…<br />a. Titik<br />b. Garis<br />c. Bidang<br />d. Piktorial</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>b. Garis</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>35. Pengertian peta menurut ICA dan Erwin Raisz terdapat perbedaan yang terletak pada….<br />a. Cara pembuatan<br />b. Alat yang digunakan<br />c. Tujuan pembuatan<br />d. Objek yang dipetakan</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>d. Objek yang dipetakan</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>36. Tahapan-tahapan dalam penggunaan peta adalah….<br />a. Penggambaran peta, pembacaan peta, dan analisis peta<br />b. Pembacaan peta, analisis peta, dan interpretasi peta<br />c. Analisis, deteksi, dan interpretasi<br />d. Analisis, deteksi, dan identifikasi</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>b. Pembacaan peta, analisis peta, dan interpretasi peta</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>37. Berikut ini adalah unsur-unsur yang dapat disadap dari peta, kecuali….<br />a. Jarak<br />b. Arah<br />c. Lokasi<br />d. Pola</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>d. Pola</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>38. Jika diketahui jarak dari kota X ke kota Y di peta 10 cm, skalanya 1:100.000, maka jarak sebenarnya adalah....<br />a. 10 cm<br />b. 100 cm<br />c. 1.000 cm<br />d. 10 km</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>d. 10 km</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>39. Cara yang digunakan untuk mengukur arah dapat dilakukan melalui....<br />a. Bearing dan azimuth<br />b. Kompas<br />c. Meteran<br />d. Garis siku</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>a. Bearing dan azimuth</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>40. Peta adalah gambaran konvensional dari permukaan bumi yang diperkecil seperti pada kenampakan jika dilihat dari atas ditambah dengan tulisan-tulisan sebagai tanda. Pendapat tersebut menurut….<br />a. ICA<br />b. Erwin Raisz<br />c. Soetardjo Soerjosoemarno<br />d. Ahli geografi<br /><br />Jawaban:</div><div>b. Erwin Raisz</div></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"><br /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #575757; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">1. Peta yang menggambarkan relief muka bumi dengan segala dimensinya disebut juga….<br />A. korografi<br />B. rupa bumi<br />C. topografi<br />D. kartografi<br />E. tematik<div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>C. topografi</div><div><br /><br /><div>2. Proyeksi yang menghasilkan gambar yang baik (relatif sempurna) untuk di daerah kutub utara dan di daerah kutub selatan adalah proyeksi….<br />A. silinder<br />B. kerucut<br />C. azimuth<br />D. merkator<br />E. unik</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>C. azimuth</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>3. Berikut ini merupakan kelemahan peta adalah….<br />A. menggambarkan semua fenomena geografis yang dipilih bumi<br />B. Kenampakan bumi dapat dimuat dengan lengkap<br />C. relief daerah yang dipetakan tidak tergambar dengan baik<br />D. karena dibuat pada bidang datar, relief daerah yang dipetakan tidak tergambar dengan baik<br />E. perhitungan/pengukuran hubungan antara objek-objek sangat tepat</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>C. relief daerah yang dipetakan tidak tergambar dengan baik</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>4. Sekelompok anggota pecinta alam SMA Suka Menang melakukan perjalanan ke Gunung Ciremai. Dalam perjalanannya itu, mereka selalu melihat peta daerah tersebut untuk menentukan jalan yang akan ditempuh. Hal ini sesuai dengan fungsi peta sebagai….<br />A. perencana<br />B. navigasi<br />C. media umum<br />D. sarana pendidikan<br />E. penunjuk arah mata angina<br /><br /></div><div>Jawaban:</div><div>B. navigasi</div><div> </div><div><br /></div><div>5. Suatu peta dibuat dengan memerhatikan sudut-sudut pada permukaan bumi supaya sama dengan sudut-sudut yang ada di peta. Hal ini sesuai dengan prinsip proyeksi….<br />A. konfrom<br />B. kerucut<br />C. ekuivalen<br />D. silinder<br />E. ekuidistan</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>A. konfrom</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>6. Proyeksi yang tepat untuk mencetak Benua Eropa yang berada di lintang tengah adalah proyeksi….<br />A. konikal<br />B. silinder<br />C. zenithal<br />D. tabung<br />E. ekuator</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>B. silinder</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>7. Berikut ini yang dimaksud dengan proyeksi ekuivalen adalah….<br />A. lebar daerah yang digambar harus sesuai dengan lebar aslinya jika dikalikan dengan skala<br />B. jarak yang digambar harus tepat perbandingannya dengan jarak sebenarnya<br />C. luas daerah yang digambarkan harus sesuai dengan aslinya jika dikalikan dengan skala<br />D. bentuk-bentuk bidang yang digambar harus sesuai dengan yang aslinya<br />E. daerah yang digambar pada peta harus sama dengan apa yang terdapat dipermukaan bumi</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: <br />A. lebar daerah yang digambar harus sesuai dengan lebar aslinya jika dikalikan dengan skala</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>8. Pada peta topografi, bentuk permukaan bumi digambarkan dalam wujud garis kontur. Suatu wilayah yang digambarkan dengan garis kontur dapat menunjukan daerah yang….<br />A. bergelombang<br />B. datar<br />C. terjal<br />D. landau<br />E. bergunung-gunung</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>C. terjal</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>9. Salah satu fungsi peta adalah….<br />A. menyimpan informasi<br />B. mengkomunikasikan informasi<br />C. membantu suatu pekerjaan<br />D. analisis data keruangan<br />E. menunjukan posisi atau lokasi relatif di permukaan bumi</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>E. menunjukan posisi atau lokasi relatif di permukaan bumi</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>10. Berikut ini yang termasuk contoh peta tematik adalah peta….<br />A. iklim, pariwisata, peta Indonesia.<br />B. curah hujan, tata guna lahan dan perhubungan.<br />C. relief, dunia, kadaster.<br />D. komunikasi, tata guna lahan dan dunia.<br />E. korografi, pariwisata, dan curah hujan.</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>B. curah hujan, tata guna lahan dan perhubungan.</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>11. Berikut ini yang termasuk dalam jenis peta umum adalah peta….<br />A. korografi dan topografi<br />B. geologi dan tanah<br />C. iklim dan perhubungan<br />D. penyebaran hasil bumi<br />E. penyebaran penduduk dan pariwisata</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>A. korografi dan topografi</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>12. Membuat peta tematik, isi peta harus tergambarkan dipeta maka digunakan symbol peta, yaitu dengan simbol….<br />A. objek dan skala<br />B. jarak dan luas<br />C. isi dan warna<br />D. titik, garis, dan wilayah<br />E. bentuk dan kenampakan</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>D. titik, garis, dan wilayah</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>13. Simbol ulasan di dalam peta biasanya digunakan untuk menggambarkan….<br />A. laut, gunung, sungai<br />B. rawa, hutan, dan danau<br />C. sungai, rawa, dan kota<br />D. ibukota, bandara, dan kebun<br />E. jalan, hutan, dan rawa<br /><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>B. rawa, hutan, dan danau</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>14. Penulisan miring (Italic) pada peta umumnya digunakan untuk menuliskan kenampakan….<br />A. pegunungan<br />B. kota<br />C. bentang budaya<br />D. perairan<br />E. permukiman</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>D. perairan</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>15. Untuk menjelaskan makna simbol pada peta maka peta harus dilengkapi dengan….<br />A. inset<br />B. legenda<br />C. border<br />D. lettering<br />E. arah mata angin</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>B. legenda</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>16. Garis-garis pendek dan putus-putus berwana biru serta membentuk pola tertentu pada pola-pola umumnya melambangkan….<br />A. sungai<br />B. bukit<br />C. rawa<br />D. laut<br />E. dataran rendah</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>A. sungai</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>17. Coba perhatikan jenis-jenis peta berikut ini!<br />1. Peta Kepadatan Penduduk.<br />2. Peta Benua Afrika<br />3. Peta Curah Hujan.<br />4. Peta Indonesia.<br />Peta-peta tersebut yang termasuk peta tematik adalah….</div><div>A. 1, 2, dan 3<br />B. 2, 3, dan 4<br />C. 3, 4, dan 5<br />D. 1, 3, dan 5<br />E. 1, 3, dan 4</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>D. 1, 3, dan 5</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>18. Titik A dan titik B di peta 12 cm, ternyata jarak yang sebenarnya dilapangan 3.600 m. yang sebenarnya dilapangan 3.600 m. Berati skala peta tersebut adalah….<br />A. 1 : 300<br />B. 1 : 3.000<br />C. 1 : 30.000<br />D. 1 : 300.000<br />E. 1 : 3.000.000</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>C. 1 : 30.000</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>19. Peta topografi tidak termasuk peta tematik, karena peta topografi….<br />A. menggambarkan relief muka bumi<br />B. mengambarkan suatu wilayah tertentu<br />C. menggambarkan kondisi tanah<br />D. menggambarkan objek tertentu<br />E. berskala kecil</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: <br />A. menggambarkan relief muka bumi</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>20. Kenampakan aliran sungai lurus-lurus pada peta menunjukan….<br />A. daerah dataran rendah<br />B. daerah tinggi dan miring<br />C. kemiringan lereng kecil<br />D. mempunyai gradien sungai yang cukup besar<br />E. banyak meander</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>B. daerah tinggi dan miring</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>21. Dua tempat yang berjarak 10 cm terdapat pada peta yang berskala 1:1.500.000. Jika jarak tempat tersebut pada peta diubah menjadi 6 cm maka skala peta yang diperlukan adalah….<br />A. 1 : 150.000<br />B. 1 : 2.500.000<br />C. 1 : 600.000<br />D. 1 : 90.000.000<br />E. 1 : 900.000</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>B. 1 : 2.500.000</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>22. Garis yang terletak di bagian tepi (atas, bawah, kiri atau kanan) peta dan ujung-ujung tiap garis bertemu dengan ujung garis yang berdekatan disebut….<br />A. judul peta<br />B. border<br />C. skala peta<br />D. inset<br />E. legenda</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: <br />B. border</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>23. Berdasarkan data yang ditonjolkan dalam peta maka peta dapat dibedakan menjadi peta umum dan peta khusus. Peta yang menggambarkan kenampakan-kenampakan tertentu dipermukaan bumi disebut peta….<br />A. kadaster<br />B. umum<br />C. topografi<br />D. tematik<br />E. dunia</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>D. tematik</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>24. Di peta jarak titik P dan Q adalah 10 cm, jika skalanya 1 : 100.000 maka jarak sebenarnya adalah….<br />A. 1 km<br />B. 1.000 km<br />C. 10 km<br />D. 10.000 km<br />E. 100 km</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div><div>C. 10 km</div><div> <br /><br /></div><div>25. Secara umum symbol dapat dibedakan menjadi….<br />A. titik, garis, dan dot<br />B. dot, garis, dan kuantitatif<br />C. titik, garis, dan luasan<br />D. titik, garis, dan kualitatif<br />E. luasan, garis, dan kualitatif</div><div><br /></div><div>Jawaban: </div></div><div>D. titik, garis, dan kualitatif</div></div><span class="fullpost">
</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-70378611358791752162022-07-24T03:28:00.006-07:002022-07-24T03:30:57.574-07:00Peradaban-Peradaban di Dunia<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1cm;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiaNQC-qxeMgbGpQ3Dx0xu_-r5nPBwa4WGH3wRxVUEk7wJ3JcjVNpLPvavGWi4nkMDQb8Sh-Fm60fqnR7k0AQPa4OArgu1ybv-HRTMsQAjOYMFrSiwKbe2DhaI043Gw9Awwq3-xEH7qvNmbrA_11W2glCaX15bwI35pEHxn8JMTtsFssEBiPmyXNDChWQ" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="126" data-original-width="250" height="161" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiaNQC-qxeMgbGpQ3Dx0xu_-r5nPBwa4WGH3wRxVUEk7wJ3JcjVNpLPvavGWi4nkMDQb8Sh-Fm60fqnR7k0AQPa4OArgu1ybv-HRTMsQAjOYMFrSiwKbe2DhaI043Gw9Awwq3-xEH7qvNmbrA_11W2glCaX15bwI35pEHxn8JMTtsFssEBiPmyXNDChWQ" width="320" /></a></div><br /><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1cm;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span><a name='more'></a></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1cm;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1cm;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Peradaban dalam bahasa Inggris disebut <i>Civilization</i>. Istilah peradaban sering dipakai untuk menunjukkan pendapat dan penilaian kita terhadap perkembangan kebudayaan. Pada waktu perkembangan kebudayaan mencapai puncaknya berwujud unsur-unsur budaya yang bersifat halus, indah, tinggi, sopan, luhur dan sebagainya, maka masyarakat pemilik kebudayaan tersebut dikatakan telah memiliki peradaban yang tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Dengan batasan-batasan pengertian di atas maka istilah peradaban sering dipakai untuk hasil-hasil kebudayaan seperti: kesenian, ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi, adat sopan santun serta pergaulan. Selain itu juga kepandaian menulis, organisasi bernegara serta masyarakat kota yang maju dan kompleks. Tinggi rendahnya peradaban suatu bangsa sangat dipengaruhi oleh faktor pendidikan, kemajuan teknologi dan ilmu pengetahuan. Ada beberapa peradaban di dunia ini, di antaranya adalah peradaban Asia (India dan Cina), Afrika (Mesir dan Mesopotamia), Eropa (Yunani dan Romawi), dan Amerika (Maya, Inca, dan Aztec).<o:p></o:p></span></div><h1 style="break-after: avoid; color: #365f91; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 21.4667px; margin: 24pt 0cm 0.0001pt 1cm; position: relative; text-indent: -1cm;"><span style="background-color: white;">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Peradaban di Asia</span></h1><h2 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 19.9333px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>India</span></h2><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Penemuan kebudayaan di sungai India kuno, berawal pada abad ke-19 (tahun 1870), dan mulai dieksplorasi oleh bangsa Inggris. Hingga sekarang, penggalian kebudayaan sungai India kuno tidak pernah berhenti, bahkan menemukan lagi sebuah aliran sungai kuno lainnya, pada dua sisi aliran sungai kuno ini tidak sedikit ditemukan juga peninggalan kuno lainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Munculnya peradaban Harappa lebih awal dibanding kitab Veda, saat itu bangsa Arya belum sampai India. Waktunya adalah tahun 2500 sebelum<span class="fullpost"> masehi, bangsa Troya mendirikan kota Harappa dan Mohenjondaro serta kota megah lainnya didaerah aliran sungai India. Tahun 1500 sebelum masehi, suku Arya baru menjejakkan kaki di bumi India Kuno.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Asal mula peradaban India, berasal dari kebudayaan sungai India, mewakili dua kota peninggalan kuno yang paling penting dan paling awal dalam peradaban sungai India, yang sekarang letaknya di kota Mohenjodaro, propinsi Sindu Pakistan dan kota Harappa dipropinsi Punjabi.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Menurut penentuan karbon 14, keberadaan kedua kota ini seharusnya adalah antara tahun 2000 hingga 3000 sebelum masehi, lagi pula kota Harappa mengekskavasi perkakas batu 10 ribu tahun lampau. Luasnya kurang lebih 25 km persegi.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Awal abad ke-20, arkeolog Inggris Marshell mengekskavasi kota kuno Mohenjondaro dan Hara. Hasilnya tingkat kesibukan dan keramaian kedua kota tersebut membuat Marshell terkejut. Ini adalah bekas ibukota dua negara merdeka pada jaman peradaban sungai India antara tahun 2350-1750 sebelum masehi, penelitian lebih lanjut menghasilkan perhitungan, dua kota masing-masing terdapat sekitar 30 hingga 40 ribu penduduk, lebih banyak dibanding penduduk kota London yang paling besar pada abad pertengahan.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Kota dibagi 2 bagian yaitu kota pemerintahan dan kota administratif. Kota administratif adalah daerah pemukiman, tempat tinggal yang padat dan jalan raya yang silang menyilang, kedua sisi jalan banyak sekali toko serta pembuatan barang-barang tembikar. Kota pemerintahan adalah wilayah istana kerajaan. Fondasi bangunan yang luas membuat jarak terhadap penduduk, pagar tembok yang tinggi besar disekeliling dan menara gedung mencerminkan kewibawaan Raja. Sistim saluran air bawah tanah yang sempurna dengan menggunakan bata membuat kehidupan kota manusia sudah berubah menjadi nyata<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Puing-puing menunjukkan Harappa merupakan sebuah kota yang mempunyai rancangan bangunan disekeliling ruang lingkup tertentu, kurang lebih menggunakan bahan yang sama, segalanya sangat teratur, bahwa pada tahun 3000 sebelum masehi, orang-orang membangun kota dengan skala yang sedemikian, memperlihatkan tingginya peradaban mereka. Kedua kota ini hilang pada tahun 1750 sebelum masehi, kira-kira dalam waktu 1000 tahun kebelakang, didaerah aliran sungai India tidak pernah ada lagi kota yang demikian megahnya, namun pada 500 tahun lampau, ketika bangsa Arya datang menginvasi, kebudayaan Harappa sudah merosot.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Sejarah peradaban India kuno lalu menampakkan suatu kondisi patah, hingga muncul kerajaan baru pada abad ke-6 sebelum masehi, peradaban kota baru jaya kembali di aliran sungai India. Perkembangan peradaban tinggi India kuno terhadap bangkit dan musnahnya budaya Harappa, telah menambah sebuah misteri pada peradaban India.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><h2 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 19.9333px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>China</span></h2><h3 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Peradaban lembah Sungai Kuning (Hwang Ho)</span></h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Sejarah tertua di Cina dimulai dari muara Sungai Kuning (Hwang-Ho, sekarang bernama Huang-He). Tetapi di Cina terdapat dua sungai besar, yaitu Sungai Hwang-Ho dan Yang Tse Kiang (Sekarang bernama Chang Jiang). Sungai Kuning atau Hwang-Ho bersumber di daerah pegunungan Kwen-Lun di Tibet. Setelah melalui daerah pengunungan Cina Utara, sungai panjang yang membawa lumpur kuning itu membentuk dataran rendah Cina dan bermuara di Teluk Tsii-Li di Laut Kuning. Daerah lembah Sungai Hwang Ho subur dikarenakan lumpur kuning yang dibawa oleh sungai tersebut. Tetapi sungai Hwang Ho ini juga mengakibatkan hal buruk yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Air sungai Hwang Ho membeku pada musim dingin dan mengakibatkan masyarakat Cina kesulitan untuk melaksanakan kehidupannya.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Saat musim semi tiba, salju mencair dan menimbulkan air bah serta menggenangi dataran yang sangat luas.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Ada beberapa dinasti yang ada di Cina yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 67.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">(1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Dinasti pertama yang berkuasa di Cina adalah dinasti Syang (Hsia).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 67.65pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Berdasarkan cerita rakyat Cina, pada zaman dinasti Syang telah berkembang sistim kepercayaan memuja para dewa. Dewa tertinggi yang bernama Dewa Shang-Ti. Dinasti Syang berakhir sekitar tahun 1766 SM dan digantikan oleh dinasti Yin (1700-1027 SM).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 67.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">(2)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Dinasti Yin (dikarenakan kurangnya data penulis tidak dapat menuliskan sejarah dinasti Yin ini)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 67.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">(3)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Dinasti Chou adalah dinasti ketiga yang berkuasa di Cina.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 67.65pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Pada zaman ini sistem yang pemerintahannya dipegang oleh seorang raja bawahan atau raja vajal. Pada zaman kekuasaan dinasti Chou ini muncul tokoh-tokoh filsafat yang memiliki peranan penting dalam perkembangan kehidupan rakyat Cina hingga kini, seperti Lao Tse dan Kong Fu Tse.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 67.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">(4)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Dinasti Chin<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 67.65pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Dinasti ini didirikan oleh raja Cheng yang bergelar Shih Huang Ti. Di bawah pemerintahannya, untuk kali pertama kali Cina merupakan negara kesatuan yang diperintah oleh satu raja saja. Pembaharuan-pembaharuan yang terjadi pada masa pemerintahannya:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Penghapusan aturan-aturan feodalisme.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Penghapusan system raja vazal<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Pembentukan provinsi dan pengangkatan gubernur.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 67.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">(5)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Dinasti Han<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 67.65pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Dinasti Han mencapai masa kejayaannya di bawah pemerintahan kaisar Han Wu Ti. Kerajaan Cina meliputi Asia Tengah, Kore, Mansyuria Selatan, Anam, Sinking. Setelah kaisar Han Wu Ti meninggal pada tahun 87 M, Dinasti Han mengalami kemunduran dan akhirnya runtuk pada tahun 221 M. ketika terjadi kekacauan bangsa tartar menyerang Cina, dan akhirnya sebagian negeri Cina dapat dikuasainya. Namun pada abad ke-7 M negeri Cina berhasil dipersatukan kembali di bawah pemerintahan kaisar-kaisar dari Dinasti T'ang.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 67.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">(6)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Dinasti T’ang<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 67.65pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Kerajaan T'ang didirikan oleh Li Shih Min yang terkenal dengan nama Kaisar T'ang T'ai Tsung. Ia memperluas wilayah kekuasaannya ke luar negeri Cina seperti selatan menguasai Ton-kin, Annam dan Kamboja. Ke sebelah barat menguasai Persia dan laut Kaspia.Di bawah kekuasaan T'ang T'ai Tsung, dinasti T'ang mencapai masa kejayaannya. Pada bidang seni syair dan seni lukis terdapat seniman-seniman yang terkenal seperti Li Tai Po, Tu Fu, dan Wang Wei. Tindakan-tindakan kaisar T'ang T'ai Tsung yang menarik perhatian rakyatnya adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Dikeluarkannya undang-undang yang mengatur pembagian tanah.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Membuat peraturan-peraturan pajak.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Membagi Kerajaan Cina menjadi 10 Provinsi.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 67.05pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Pada abad ke-10 M, dinasti T'ang runtuh dan negeri Cina kembali mengalami kekacauan dan silih berganti raja-raja memerintah. Baru pada tahun 960 kekacauan ini berhasil diatasi dan selanjutnya berdiri Dinasti Sung.<o:p></o:p></span></div><h3 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>The Great Wall of China</span></h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">The Great Wall of China atau biasa disebut Tembok Besar Cina dibangun pada masa pemerintahan Dinasti Chin (namun ada sumber lain yang menyatakan tembok cina didirikan pada dinasti Yin.) pada masa pemerintahan kaisar Shih Huang Ti dengan tujuan Untuk menghalang-halangi gerakan-gerakan dari bangsa pengembara yang berada di sebelah utara negeri Cina.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Shih Huang Ti memerintahkan untuk membangun tembok besar yang dikerjakan selama kira-kira 18 abad dan berakhir pada zaman Dinasti Ming (abad ke-17 M).Namun sebelumnya di daerah Cina utara sudah dibangun dinding terpisah untuk menangkal serangan yang dilakukan oleh suku di sebelah utara cina.Dinding-dinding itu dihubungkan menjadi tembok raksasa yang panjangnya 7000 Km dan tingginya 16 m serta lebarnya 8 m.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Para Filsuf dari Cina:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">(1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Lao Tse<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Ajaran Lao Tse tercantum dalam bukunya yang berjudul Tao Te Cing. Lao Tse percaya bahawa ada semangat keadilan dan kesejahteraan yang kekal dan abadi, yaitu bernama Tao..Ajaran Lao Tse bernama Taoisme. Ajaran ini digunakan di cina selama kurang lebih 24 abad di Cina.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">(2)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Kong Fu Tse<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 72pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Ajaran Kong Fu Tse berdasarkan Tao juga. Menurut ajaran Kong Fu Tse, Tao adalah sesuatu kekuatan yang mengatur segala-galanya dalam alam semesta ini, sehingga tercapai keselarasan. Jadi bisa dibilang Tao adalah tuhan mereka.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">(3)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Meng Tse<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 72pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Meng Tse (372-280 SM) adalah seorang murid Kong Fu Tse yang melanjutkan ajaran gurunya. Namun pada peleksanaannya dia tidak mengajarkan ajaran gurunya kepada para bangsawan, Namun pada rakyat jelata.<o:p></o:p></span></div><h1 style="break-after: avoid; color: #365f91; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 21.4667px; margin: 24pt 0cm 0.0001pt 1cm; position: relative; text-indent: -1cm;"><span style="background-color: white;">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Peradaban di Afrika</span></h1><h2 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 19.9333px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Mesir</span></h2><h3 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Kehidupan Masyarakat Mesir</span></h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Sungai Nil </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">adalah</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;"> sungai terpanjang di dunia yaitu mencapai 6400 kilometer. Sungai Nil bersumber dari mata air di dataran tinggi (pegunungan) Kilimanjaro di Afrika Timur. Sungai Nil mengalir dari arah selatan ke utara bermuara ke Laut Tengah. Ada empat Negara yang dilewati sungai Nil yaitu Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia dan Mesir. Setiap tahun sungai Nil selalu banjir. Luapan banjir itu menggenangi daerah di kiri kanan sungai, sehingga menjadi lembah yang subur selebar antara 15 sampai 50 kilometer. Di sekeliling lembah sungai adalah gurun. Batas timur adalah gurun Arabia di tepi Laut Merah. Batas selatan terdapat gurun Nubia di Sudan, batas barat adalah gurun Libia. Kemudian batas utara Mesir adalah Laut Tengah.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Lembah sungai Nil yang subur mendorong masyarakat untuk bertani. Air sungai Nil dimanfaatkan untuk irigasi dengan membangun saluran air, terusan-terusan dan waduk. Air sungai dialirkan ke ladang-ladang milik penduduk dengan distribusi yang merata. Untuk keperluan irigasi dibuatlah organisasi pengairan yang biasanya diketuai oleh para tuan tanah atau golongan feodal. Hasil pertanian Mesir adalah gandum, sekoi atau jamawut dan selai yaitu padi-padian yang biji atau buahnya keras seperti jagung. Untuk memenuhi kebutuhan barang-barang serta untuk menjual hasil produksi rakyat Mesir, maka dijalinlah hubungan dagang dengan Funisia, Mesopotamia dan Yunani di kawasan Laut Tengah. Peranan sungai Nil adalah sebagai sarana transportasi perdagangan. Banyak perahu-perahu dagang yang melintasi sungai Nil.<o:p></o:p></span></div><h3 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Sistem Kekuasaan Raja-Raja Mesir</span></h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Sejarah politik di Mesir berawal dari terbentuknya komunitas-komunitas di desa-desa sebagai kerajaan-kerajaan kecil dengan pemerintahan desa. Desa itu disebut nomen. Dari desa-desa kecil berkembanglah menjadi kota yang kemudian disatukan menjadi kerajaan Mesir Hilir dan Mesir Hulu. Proses tersebut berawal dari tahun 4000 SM namun pada tahun 3400 SM seorang penguasa bernama Menes mempersatukan kedua kerajaan tersebut menjadi satu kerjaan Mesir yang besar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Mesir merupakan sebuah kerajaan yang diperintah oleh raja yang bergelar Firaun. Ia berkuasa secara mutlak. Kata Firaun berasal dari kata peru artinya rumah besar atau istana yang menjadi tempat tinggal raja. Firaun dianggap dewa dan dipercaya sebagai putera Dewa Osiris. Seluruh kekuasaan berada ditangannya baik sipil, militer maupun agama.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Sebagai penguasa, Firaun mengklaim atas seluruh tanah kerajaan. Rakyat yang tinggal di wilayah kerajaan harus membayar pajak. Untuk keperluan tersebut Firaun memerintahkan untuk sensus penduduk, tanah dan binatang ternak. Ia membuat undangundang dan karena itu menguasai pengadilan. Sebagai penguasa militer Firaun berperan sebagai panglima perang, sedangkan pada waktu damai ia memerintahkan tentaranya untuk membangun kanal-kanal dan jalan raya. Ia juga pemimpin agama.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Untuk menjalankan pemerintahannya Firaun mengangkat para pejabat yang pada umumnya berasal dari golongan bangsawan. Ada pejabat gubernur yang memerintah propinsi, panglima ketentaraan, hakim di pengadilan dan pendeta untuk melaksanakan upacara keagamaan. Salah satu jabatan penting adalah Wazir atau Perdana Menteri yang umumnya dijabat oleh putra mahkota.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Sejak tahun 3400 SM sejarah Mesir diperintah oleh 30 dinasti yang berbeda yang terdiri dari tiga jaman yaitu Kerjaan Mesir Tua yang berpusat di Memphis, Kerajaan Tengah di Awaris dan Mesir Baru di Thebe. Secara garis besar keadaan pemerintahan raja-raja Mesir adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Kerajaan Mesir Tua (3400 - 2160 SM)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Lahirnya kerajaan Mesir Tua setelah Menes berhasil mempersatukan Mesir Hulu dan Mesir Hilir. Sebagai pemersatu ia digelari Nesutbiti dan digambarkan memakai mahkota kembar. Kerajaan Mesir Tua disebut jaman piramida karena pada masa inilah dibangun piramida-piramida terkenal misalnya piramida Sakarah dari Firaun Joser. Piramida di Gizeh adalah makam Firaun Cheops, Chifren dan Menkawa. Apa sebab kerajaan Mesir Tua runtuh? Runtuhnya Mesir Tua disebabkan karena sejak tahun 2500 SM pemerintahan mengalami kekacauan. Bangsa-bangsa dari luar misalnya dari Asia Kecil melancarkan serangan ke Mesir. Para bangsawan banyak yang melepaskan diri dan ingin berkuasa sendiri-sendiri. Akhirnya terjadilah perpecahan antara Mesir Hilir dan Mesir Hulu.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(2)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Kerajaan Mesir Tengah (2100 - 1788 SM)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Kerajaan Mesir Tengah dikenal dengan tampilnya Sesotris III. Ia berhasil memulihkan persatuan dan membangun kembali Mesir. Tindakannya antara lain membuka tanah pertanian, membangun proyek irigasi, pembuatan waduk dan lain-lain. Ia meningkatkan perdagangan serta membuka hubungan dagang dengan Palestina, Syria dan pulau Kreta. Sesotris III juga berhasil memperluas wilayah ke selatan sampai Nubia (kini Ethiopia). Sejak tahun 1800 SM kerajaan Mesir Tengah diserbu dan ditaklukkan oleh bangsa Hyksos.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(3)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Kerajaan Mesir Baru (1500 - 1100 SM)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Sesudah diduduki bangsa Hyksos, Mesir memasuki jaman kerajaan baru atau jaman imperium. Disebut jaman imperium karena para Firaun Mesir berhasil merebut wilayah/daerah di Asia barat termasuk Palestina, Funisia dan Syria. Raja-raja yang memerintah jaman Mesir Baru antara lain:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Ahmosis I.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Ia berhasil mengusir bangsa Hyksos dari Mesir sehingga berkuasalah dinasti ke 18, ke 19 dan ke 20.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Thutmosis I.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;"> Pada masa pemerintahannya Mesir berhasil menguasai Mesopotamia yang subur.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Thutmosis III.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Merupakan raja terbesar di Mesir. Ia memerintah bersama istrinya Hatshepsut. Melalui perang koalisi antara tahun 1799 - 1814 hampir seluruh Eropa jatuh ke tangan Kaisar Perancis yaitu Napoleon Bonaparte. Thutmosis III juga dikenal karena memerintahkan pembangunan Kuil Karnak dan Luxor.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Amen Hotep IV<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar ini dikenal memperkanlkan kepercayaan yang bersifat monotheis yaitu hanya menyembah dewa Aton (dewa matahari) yang merupakan roh dan tidak berbentuk. Ia juga menyatakan sebagai manusia biasa dan bukan dewa.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Ramses II<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Ramses II dikenal membangun bangunan besar bernama Ramesseum dan Kuil serta makamnya di Abusimbel. Ia juga pernah memerintahkan penggalian sebuah terusan yang menghubungkan daerah sungai Nil dengan Laut Merah namun belum berhasil. Masa Ramses II diperkirakan sejaman dengan kehidupan nabi Musa. Setelah pemerintahan Ramses II kekuasaan di Mesir mengalami kemunduran. Mesir ditaklukkan Assyria pada tahun 670 SM dan pada tahun 525 SM Mesir menjadi bagian imperium Persia. Setelah Persia, Mesir dikuasai oleh Iskandar Zulkarnaen dan para penggantinya dari Yunani dengan dinasti terakhir Ptolemeus. Salah satu keturunan dinasti Ptolemeus adalah Ratu Cleopatra dan sejak tahun 27 SM Mesir menjadi wilayah Romawi.<o:p></o:p></span></div><h2 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 19.9333px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Mesopotamia</span></h2><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Mesopotamia adalah suatu daerah yang terletak diantara dua sungai, yaitu sungai Eufrat dan Tigris (Mezo=tengah, potamus=sungai) Terletak di Asia Barat Daya, yang berbatasan dengan:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Teluk Persia dan Iran sebelah Timur dan Timur Laut<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Iran dan Turki, sebelah Utara<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Sirya dan Yordania, disebelah Barat<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Saudi Arabia dan Kuwait, di sebelah Selatan<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Salah satu bangsa yang ada di daerah Mesopotamia adalah bangsa Sumeria. Bangsa Sumeria merupakan penguasa pertama daerah Mesopotamia. Hasil Kebudayaan Bangsa Sumeria:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Mengenal bentuk tulisan yang disebut huruf paku<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Menggunakan batu-bata sebagai bahan bangunan untuk membuat tembok rumah<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Mengetahui penanggalan : 1 tahun terdiri 12 bulan = 350 hari, 1 hari terdiri : 24 jam, 1 jam = 60 menit, 1 menit = 60 detik<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Mengetahui suatu lingkaran = 360°<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Dalam kesusastraan menghasilkan wiracarita/kisah kepahlawanan yaitu Gilgamesh<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Kepercayaan bangsa Sumeria adalah kepercayaan terhadap gejala dan kekuatan alam sehingga dikenal beberapa dewa yaitu : Dewa Langit, Dewa Bumi, Dewa Lautan<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Telah mengadakan hubungan dengan kota Mohenjodaro dan Harappa</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><h1 style="break-after: avoid; color: #365f91; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 21.4667px; margin: 24pt 0cm 0.0001pt 1cm; position: relative; text-indent: -1cm;"><span style="background-color: white;">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Peradaban di Eropa</span></h1><h2 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 19.9333px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Yunani</span></h2><h3 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Peradaban Yunani Kuno</span></h3><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Yunani sekarang sama dengan Yunani kuno yang akan Anda pelajari. Yunani terletak di <i>Ujung Selatan Semenanjung Balkan. </i>Selain di daratan tersebut wilayahnya juga meliputi kepulauan di <i>Laut Aegeia. </i>Batas-batas Yunani sekarang ini di utara berbatasan dengan Albania, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria dan Turki, di timur adalah Laut Aegeia, di selatan adalah Laut Tengah dan di barat adalah Laut Ionia. Jika peradaban kuno di Asia dan Afrika yang telah Anda pelajari memiliki pola umum yaitu merupakan peradaban lembah sungai dengan kegiatan ekonomi yang utama adalah pertanian (agraris) maka peradaban Yunani maupun Romawi sebagai akar budaya peradaban Eropa menyimpang dari pola umum tersebut karena faktor alam yang berbeda, yakni:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Sebagian besar wilayah Yunani bergunung-gunung sehingga antar wilayah terpisah antara satu dengan yang lain.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Tiga puluh prosen daerahnya berupa daratan rendah yang terdapat di dekat laut dan terbentuk oleh endapan lumpur sungai. Sisanya berupa jazirah yaitu Peloponesos dan Attica.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Gunug-gunung dan teluk-teluk di Yunani yang tak terhitung banyaknya menghalangi komunikasi melalui darat. Lembah-lembah dan daratan rendah yang terpisah-pisah merupakan unit-unit geografis dan ekonomi yang bersifat alami, dan menjadi pemisah kesatuan unit politik. Kesatuan politik itu disebut <i>Polis dan Negara Kota (City State) </i>yang wilayahnya meliputi kota itu sendiri dan daerah-daerah sekitarnya. Dan tanah Yunani yang bergunung-gunung pada umumnya kurang subur.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Bangsa Yunani merupakan campuran antara penduduk asli dan pendatang yang berasal dari padang rumput sekitar Laut Kaspia. Mereka termasuk Ras Indo Jerman yang disebut <i>bangsa Hellas </i>yang gagah berani. Mereka berimigrasi sejak tahun 2000 Sm kemudian menetap di berbagai daerah. Suku bangsa <i>Doria </i>menetap di jazirah <i>Peloponesos </i>dengan polis utamanya <i>Sparta. </i>Suku bangsa <i>Ionia </i>menetap di jazirah <i>Attica </i>dengan polis utamanya <i>Athena. </i>Suku bangsa Aeolia menetap di Yunani Utara dengan polis utamanya <i>Delphi. </i>Negeri yang berkembang mula-mula di daratan Yunani adalah kota perdagangan <i>Mycena </i>yang semula merupakan daerah koloni kerajaan Kreta. Kemudian berkembanglah ratusan polis di Yunani. Hubungan antar polis di Yunani antara lain dalam perdagangan maupun pertukaran ide/gagasan yang kemudian membentuk peradaban Yunani. Masyarakat Yunani bangga sebagai warga kota, mereka merasa <i>Superior </i>sedangkan yang tinggal di luar polis dianggap sebagai bangsa <i>barbar. </i>Rasa Superior itu kemudian tampak pada masyarakat yang tinggal di polis-polis terkemuka Yunani antara lain Sparta dan Athena. Bangsa Yunani sulit bersatu karena antar polis saling bersaing untuk memperebutkan puncak kekuasaan. Namun pada saat menghadapi ancaman bangsa lain antara polis Sparta dan Athena kemudian bersatu sehingga memperoleh kemenangan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Kehidupan masyarakat Yunani yang mendiami wilayah beriklim mediteran yang selalu hangat dan segar memungkinkan bersikap optimis dan berwatak riang. Suasana langit yang terang tanpa banyak awan di daerah Attica (Athena) juga menyebabkan semangat penduduknya tinggi dan kreasinya menonjol. Itulah sebabnya di Athena berkembang pesat kebudayaan baik di bidang seni maupun ilmu pengetahuan dan filsafat.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Masyarakat Yunani memuja banyak dewa atau Polytheisme. Berbeda dengan sikap orang Timur terhadap Dewa yang dipandang sebagai pribadi yang disembah karena takut. Dewa-dewa bagi orang timur merupakan roh atau digambarkan sebagai penguasa alam dan ada yang berwujud binatang, sedangkan masyarakat Yunani menggambarkan dewa-dewa yang disembahnya bertubuh dan berperilaku seperti manusia bahkan orang Athena sendiri menyatakan keturunan <i>ion </i>yaitu anak dewa Apollo.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Menurut pandangan Yunani, dewa-dewa itu memiliki tubuh seperti manusia tetapi lebih besar, lebih indah serta tidak dapat mati. Dewa-dewi memiliki sifat seperti manusia, ada yang baik dan buruk. Dewa-dewi berkeluarga, berperang dan bersaing untuk mempertahankan kekuasaan. Selain dewa-dewi mereka juga memuja <i>hero (pahlawan), </i>yaitu manusia setengah dewa yang sakti namun dapat mati. Salah seorang hero yang terkenal adalah Hercules.<o:p></o:p></span></div><h3 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span face="Calibri, "sans-serif"">b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Peninggalan<span class="Heading3Char"> Budaya Yunani</span><span face="Calibri, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 15.3333px;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></h3><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Seni Sastra<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Sastrawan terkenal dari Yunani adalah <i>Homerus </i>yang menulis kitab <i>Illiad </i>dan <i>Odysseia</i>. Kedua kitab tersebut berkaitan erat dengan kejadian sejarah yang disebut perang Troya. Kota Troya terletak di Semenanjung Anatolia di Selatan Selat Dardanella. Seorang peneliti dari Jerman yang bernama <i>Heinrich Schlieman </i>telah menemukan beberapa bukti peninggalan peradaban kota Troya seperti yang dilukiskan dalam karya Komerus tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;"> Orang Yunanilah yang pertama menulis drama yang dapat merasakan tentang orang lain dari sisi kehidupan, cerita, kebencian, pembunuhan, misteri dan lain-lain. Beberapa tokoh drama tragedi antara lain <i>Aeschylus </i>dengan karyanya yang berjudul <i>Oresteia</i>, <i>Sopochles </i>dengan karyanya berjudul <i>Antigone</i>. Sedangkan drama komedi tokohnya <i>Aristophanes </i>dengan karyanya berjudul <i>Lysistrata</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(2)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Seni Bangunan dan Seni Pahat<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;"> Pada awalnya seni patung/pahat Yunani menghasilkan patung seperti patung bangsa Mesir, kemudian dikembangkan menjadi lebih hidup dengan gaya naturalis. Patung dibuat dari marmer dan perunggu. Pemahat yang terkenal di Yunani bernama <i>Phidias</i>, sedangkan arsitek bangunan bernama <i>Ikhtinus</i>. Seni pahat menghasilkan berbagai patung para dewa maupun tokoh yang terkenal misalnya Dewa Zeus, Perikles, Plato, Aristoteles dan lain-lain. Pada masa pemerintahan Perikles seni bangunan Yunani berkembang pesat. Peninggalan bangunan kuno Yunani antara lain kuil pemujaan. Di <i>bukit Acropolis </i>berdiri megah <i>kuil Parthenon </i>dan <i>kuil Erechteum </i>yang di dalamnya terdapat patung dewi <i>Palas Athena</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;"> Selain kuil, peninggalan bangunan Yunani adalah gedung theater pada gambar 5. Teater adalah panggung di lapangan terbuka untuk pementasan misalnya komedi. Penonton duduk di bangku-bangku yang terbuat dari batu. Bagi Yunani, teater merupakan bagian pendidikan dan setiap orang dianjurkan untuk menonton.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(3)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Filsafat dan Ilmu Pengetahuan.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Seperti sudah disinggung pada uraian pemerintahan Yunani, ternyata polis Athena melahirkan banyak ahli pikir yang mewariskan pengetahuannya bagi umat manusia. Tepatlah ungkapan Socrates yang menyatakan:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">“Bila Anda ingin menemukan orang kuat pergilah ke Sparta, tetapi bila Anda ingin menjumpai orang pintar dan bijak, datanglah ke Athena”.</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Filsuf dari Yunani, </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">yakni</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> ada beberapa filsuf :<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Socrates (469-399 S.M.),<o:p></o:p></span></i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Ajarannya tentang <i>filsafat etika </i>atau kesusilaan dengan logika sebagai dasar untuk membahasnya. Socrates mengajarkan agar manusia dapat membedakan apa yang baik atau buruk, benar atau salah, adil atau tidak adil. Ajarannya ditujukan kepada anak muda yang diajaknya berdiskusi. Ia akhirnya di hokum mati dengan minum racun karena tuduhan telah merombak dasar-dasar etika masyarakat Yunani kuno serta tidak percaya kepada dewa-dewa yang disembah masyarakat.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Plato (427-347 S.M.),<o:p></o:p></span></i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Ajaran filsafatnya disebut filsafat<i> idea</i>. Ia menulis banyak buku, salah satunya berjudul <i>Republica</i>. Dalam buku tersebut diuraikan tentang kebahagiaan hidup yang dapat dicapai bila manusia bekerja dengan wataknya dan wanita diangkat derajatnya. Plato juga mendirikan pusat pendidikan bernama <i>Academus</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Aristoteles (384-322 S.M.).<o:p></o:p></span></i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Ia adalah murid Plato, merupakan ahli di bidang biologi dan ketatanegaraan. Karyanya yang terkenal antara lain <i>Klasifikasi Flora dan Fauna di Kepulauan Aegeia</i>. Di bidang ketatnegaraan, ia berpendapat bahwa sistem pemerintahan yang baik adalah republik. Pemerintahan yang baik mengutamakan kebahagiaan sebesar-besarnya untuk seluruh rakyat. Aristoteles adalah pendiri pusat pendidikan bernama Peripatetis. Salah seorang muridnya ialah <i>Alexandar Agung</i>, raja <i>Macedonia</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Kemajuan </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">bangsa</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Yunani di bidang ilmu pengetahuan dapat dilihat dari deretan ilmuwan sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Pythagoras</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">, </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">ahli matematika<i> </i>yang melahirkan dalil untuk segitiga siku-siku. Tentu Anda tahu rumus Phytagoras!<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Hipokrates</span></i><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">, </span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">bapak <i>kedokteran</i>. Ia dapat menyebutkan sebab timbulnya penyakit dan cara mengobatinya yang ditulis dalam buku berjudul <i>Aphorismen </i>dan <i>Prognose</i>. Sumbangannya yang terkenal adalah sumpah dokter yang berlaku sampai sekarang.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Archimedes</span></i><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">yang menciptakan teori gravitasi dan teori benda mengapung.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Thales</span></i><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">dengan pendapatnya: alam fisik terdiri dari satu bahan dasar yaitu air.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Analisagoras</span></i><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">dengan pendapatnya: materi terdiri dari beraneka ragam zat renik.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Democritus</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">: ahli atom.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Euclid</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">: ahli ilmu ukur.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Herodotus</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">: Bapak sejarah yang pertama kali mengembangkan sejarah tertulis.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Thucydides</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">:<b> </b></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Ahli sejarah yang menulis tentang perang Peloponesos.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Demikianlah beberapa contoh nama ilmuwan yang mewakili kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan Yunani. Pada uraian selanjutnya Anda akan mempelajari masa akhir kejayaan Yunani.<o:p></o:p></span></div><h3 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><span class="Heading3Char">Masa</span> Akhir Kejayaan Yunani</span></h3><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Masa akhir kejayaan Yunani diawali dengan peristiwa sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Perang Peloponesos 431-404 S.M.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Perang Peloponesos disebabkan karena polis Athena yang memimpin persekutuan polis-polis di jazirah Attica disebut Liga Delos memiliki pengaruh yang terlalu kuat baik di bidang politik dan ekonomi Yunani sehingga banyak polis yang khawatir menjadi sasaran ekspansi dan dikuasai Athena. Keadaan ini menyebabkan Sparta sebagai pemimpin Liga Peloponesos bangkit memimpin polis-polis lain menghadapi Athena. Athena tangguh dengan angkatan lautnya sedangkan Sparta kuat angkatan daratnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(2)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Perang</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <b>mulai meletus tahun 431 S.M.<o:p></o:p></b></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Sparta menebangi pohon zaitun dan menghancurkan tanaman yang lain untuk melumpuhkan ekonomi Athena. Bencana lain yang dialami Athena adalah munculnya wabah penyakit akibat buruknya sanitasi sehingga menyebabkan kematian seperempat jumlah penduduk Athena termasuk Perikles tahun 429 S.M. Kematian Perikles turut menyebabkan lemahnya kepemimpinan Athena. Pada tahun 404 S.M. Sparta dapat mengalahkan Athena karena bantuan Persia. Perang saudara tersebut dikisahkan oleh sejarawan Thucydides secara ilmiah artinya ia menulis sejarah berdasarkan fakta dan mencoba menuliskannya secara obyektif.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Bagaimana dampak perang Peloponesos ini bagi Yunani? Ternyata perang tersebut mengakibatkan rapuhnya pertahanan Yunani untuk menghadapi ancaman dari luar berupa penaklukan oleh Raja Macedonia yang dapat Anda pelajari dari uraian berikut ini.</span><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><h2 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 19.9333px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Romawi<o:p></o:p></span></h2><h3 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><span lang="IN">Munculnya Peradaban Romawi Kuno</span><o:p></o:p></span></h3><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Secara garis besar, </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">sejarah</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> romawi dibagi menjadi tiga zaman:</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Zaman Kerajaan (750-510 SM)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Semua Romawi adal</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">a</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">h sebuah kerajaan yang diperintah oleh seorang raja yang berkuasa mutlak.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(2)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Zaman Republik (<u>+</u> 510 SM-30 SM)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Zaman Republik adalah suatu zaman ketika nama tumbuh dari negara kota kecil menjadi republik yang luas.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(3)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Zaman Imperium atau kekaisaran (30 SM-475 SM)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Zaman Imperium adalah zaman berkuasanya monarki konstitusional. Sebelum memasuki zaman kedua tersebut, Italia (tempat kota roma berdiri) dimasuki berbagai bangsa dari utara, timur, dan selatan. Kaisar pertama Romawi adalah Octavianus, dengan gelar Augustus, Princeps, Imperator, Pontifex.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Periode sekitar 1500-753 SM, Italia dimasuki bangsa-bangsa yang berbahasa Indo-Eropa dari utara dan kemudian bermukim di sebelah selatan sungai Tiber. Dari arah timur, masuk bangsa <i>Yunani</i> yang kemudian membawa Italia memasuki Zaman sejarah. Mereka bersaing dengan bangsa <i>Etruscan</i>, bangsa yang tidak diketahui asal-usulnya. Bangsa terakhir ini memiliki kemampuan yang tinggi dalam pengolahan logam, penggunaan batu untuk bangunan, tekhnik lengkung (Arch), dan tekhnik pengeringan rawa. Seperti bangsa Yunani, bangsa Etruscan juga mengembangkan peradaban kota dan mempengaruhi tumbuhnya kota Roma. Hal ini menyebabkan masyarakat terdiri atas percampuran antara orang Latin (asli) dengan Bangsa Estruscan. Pada abad ke-8 Bangsa Estruscan berhasil menaklukan bangsa Latin, kemudian bangsa ini mendirikan negara-negara kota (polis) yang jumlahnya mencapai 17 buah, salah satunya adalah Polis Romawi.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Sejak <b>753-509 SM</b>, Roma tumbuh menjadi kota, yang menurut legenda Ro-mawi didirikan oleh dua saudara kembar <b>Remus dan Remulus pada 753 SM</b>. Kota ini banyak mengadopsi tradisi Estruscan.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Di bawah kekuasaan Raja Estruscan, Roma mengalami pertumbuhan pesat, dan memelihara hubungan baik dengan bangsa-bangsa di Laut Tengah. Bangsa Estruscan menjadikan Roma sebagai ibu kota kerajaannya.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Bangsa latin Indo-Eropa dan Yunani yang diperintah dengan keras oleh bangsa Estruscan memberontak pada 509 SM dan berhasil merebut Roma. Bangsa Latin membentuk pemerintah baru yang disebut “Republik” atau sesuatu dari rakyat. Republik ini berlangsung hingga 500 Tahun. Pertumbuhan Roma dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor geografis:</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Jazirah Italia sebagai Lokasi Pusat Romawi yang berhadapan dengan Laut Tengah. Hal ini menyebabkan kegiatan pelayaran dan perda-gangan mereka berkembang pesat. Kota Byzantium di Romawi Timur menjadi pusat perdagangan yang terkenal.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Di Utara membentang pegunungan Alpen sebagai pelindung serangan dari luar.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Dari Utara ke Selatan membentang pegunungan Appennina menjadi pemersatu Jazirah.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Iklim yang nyaman dan tanah subur.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><h3 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><span lang="IN">Terbentuknya Pemerintah Republik Romawi</span><o:p></o:p></span></h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Pada masa pemerintah republik, wilayah Romawi membentang dari Spanyol (barat) sampai Turki (timur) dengan pusatnya di Roma, Italia.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Pada masa pemerintah Republik, terdapat beberapa Unsur yang menjalankan pemerintahan, yaitu:</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kekuasaan Eksekutif</span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">, yang dipegang oleh dua orang konsul yang dipilih dengan masa jabatan 1 tahun. Jabatan ini hanya boleh dipegang oleh golongan bangsawan (<i>Patricia</i>). Mereka memegang kekuasaan pemerintahan.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kekuasaan Legislatif</span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">, terdiri atas 2:</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Majelis tinggi (senat), sebagai penasihat konsul.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Majelis rendah (Comitia), atau disebut juga Dewan Rakyat (Comitea Curiata)</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Pada zaman Republik masyarakat Romawi terbagi menjadi 2 golongan:</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Patricia (bangsawan). Golongan ini mempunyai hak istimewa dalam pemerintahan.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Plebeya (rakyat biasa). Hak-haknya dibatasi.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Karena hak kaum Plabeya merasa dibatasi, golongan ini berjuang agar haknya bisa setingkat dengan kaum patricia. Sejak saat itu, struktur masyarakat romawi terbagi menjadi 3:</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Gol</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">ongan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> Optimat: orang kaya baru (mirip tuan tanah).</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Golongan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> Equites: golongan menengah.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Gol</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">ongan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> Proletar: rakyat jelata yang hidupnya miskin.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><h3 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><span lang="IN">Wilayah Kekuasaan Romawi</span><o:p></o:p></span></h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Wilayah Romawi sangat luas. Mula-mula Semenanjung Italia disatukan, sampai kemudian Semenanjung Balkan berhasil ditaklukan pada tahun 146 SM.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><h3 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 70.9pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">d.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><span lang="IN">Gaya Hidup Bangsa Romawi dan Timbulnya Masalah Sosial</span><o:p></o:p></span></h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Menurut sejarahawan Romawi bernama Sallust (86-34 SM), kemenangan Romawi atas musuh-musuhnya merupakan awal permasalahan yang dihadapi Romawi.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Gaya hidup sederhana</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Ini terlihat pada gaya hidup Marcus Seto (234-149 SM) sebagai salah satu seorang pejabat tinggi Roma.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(2)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Sistem kepercayaan</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Bangsa Romawi percaya pada banyak dewa (<i>polytheisme</i>). Kedudukannya mirip dengan Dewa Yunani, hanya saja namanya berbeda. Dewa Romawi Kuno memakai nama planet. Kepercayaan ini dibawa oleh bangsa Etruscan dan Yunani.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Dewa Jupiter</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> atau dewa tertinggi, dewa cahaya, langit, dan cuaca. (di Yunani disebut Dewa Zeus)</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Istri Dewa Jupiter, <b>Juno</b>, ratu dari nirwana, cahaya, kelahiran, wanita, dan pernikahan (di Yunani disebut Dewi Hera).</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Dewa Mars</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">, dewa perang. Di Yunani sama dengan Dewa Ares (selanjutnya menjadi simbol Zodiak Aries).</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Dewa Neptunus</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">, dewa laut. Di Yunani disebut Poseidon.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Dewi Artemis</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">, dewi hutan/perburuan dan kelahiran. Disebut juga dengan dewi Diana.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Dewi Venus</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">, dewi kecantikan dan cinta. Di Yunani disebut dewi Aphrodite (dia dan anaknya, Eros, menjadi simbol zodiak Pisces).</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Apollo</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> (di Yunani dan Roma sama), Dewa musik, matahari, dan puisi (seni).</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Pada masa pemerintahan Kaisar Octavianus Agustus, muncul agama baru yang bersifat Monotheisme, yaitu agama kristen.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(3)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Perubahan gaya hidup</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Perubahan gaya hidup orang Roma terlihat dari cara mereka menghabiskan waktu luang. Mereka mengadopsi budaya Hellenik selama berperang dengan Yunani. Pada Abad ke-2 SM, kebiasaan orang Yunani mandi menjadi gaya baru orang Roma. Pada awal Republik Roma, orang Roma jarang mandi, terutama di musim dingin. Namun, setelah budaya tersebut masuk, telah dibangun tempat mandi umum, dan fasilitas umum lainnya.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Bahasa dan Budaya Yunani pun menjadi populer di Romawi. Di sekolah, bahasa Yunani menjadi bahasa kedua setelah bahasa Latin Romawi.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Perubahan ini dapat kita lihat pada sesosok figur <b>Scipio Aemilianus</b> (185-129 SM), pahlawan perang yang menghancurkan <b>Hannibal</b> dari Carthago, yang merasa budaya lama Romawi dianggap tidak sesuai dengan perkembangan zaman yang ditinggalkannya.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(4)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Timbulnya masalah sosial</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Timbulnya masalah sosial pada masyarakat Romawi disebabkan adanya perubahan gaya hidup mewah masyarakatnya. Luasnya wilayah Republik Roma menyebabkan sulitnya pemerintah pusat mengontrol di tiap provinsi.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(5)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Persaingan dengan Carthago</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Carthago merupakan lawan yang kuat dan berat bagi kaum Romawi. Carthago merupakan pusat perdagangan Phunisia (Afrika utara). Bangsa Phunisia telah lama menguasai laut tengah (<i>Mare Nostrum</i>). Selain Carthago, mereka memiliki koloni dagang dan angkatan laut yang kuat.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Perang Phunisia I (264-241 SM)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Pada saat </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">i</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">tu, Romawi menyerang koloni Carthago di pulau Sicilia. Pada peperangan tersebut Romawi memperoleh kemenangan.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Perang Phunisia II (218-201 SM)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Carthago yang dipimpin oleh panglima Hanibal menyerang Romawi melalui spanyol. Kemudian, melalui Galia naik Pegunungan Alpen dan mereka berhasil sampai di Lembah Sungai Po dengan membawa pasukan gajah dan infanteri. Pasukan Romawi yang telah menghadang di Kanae dihancurkan pasukan Carthago. Namun, pada saat penyerangan bantuan bagi </span><span lang="RO-MO" style="font-size: 10pt;">Carthago</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> tidak kunjung datang, Jendral Scipio Tua dari Spanyol menyerang Carthago. Pasukan tersebut terpaksa ditarik kembali. Pertempuran habis-habisan kemudian terjadi antara Romawi dan Carthago. Pasukan Carthago terpaksa mengalah karena sudah tidak sanggup bertempur lagi.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Perang Phunisia III (149-146 SM)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Seorang ahli pidato yang bernama Cato melakukan provokator kepada pemerintahan Romawi. Akhirnya jendral Scipio muda memimpin pasukan Romawi yang kuat. Mereka pun berhasil menghancurkan Carthago.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(6)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Akhir Republik Roma</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Gagalnya Landreform</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Sallust (86-34 SM), </span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">sejarawan Romawi, menyatakan bahwa imperium yang besar menyulitkan dalam konsolidasi kekuasaan. Di beberapa daerah, muncul pemberontakan kaum plebeia yang menghendaki perbaikan nasib.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Ada dua orang aristokrat yang terpilih menjadi tribune rakyat yang peduli pada kesengsaraan golongan plebeia, yaitu <b>Tiberius Gracchus </b>(163-133 SM) dan adiknya <b>Gaius</b> (153-121 SM). Namun, usaha Landreform mereka gagal. Keduanya terbunuh bersama pengikutnya.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Pemberontakan daerah</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Karena banyaknya pemberontakan di daerah-daerah, diperlukan konso-lidaritas militer yang kuat. Gaius Marius, seorang keturunan suku italia (bukan golongan aristokrat Roma) tampil sebagai konsul pada 107 SM dan berhasil memadamkan pemberontakan suku-suku di Italia pada 91 SM, Afrika Utara (suku Nubia), dan suku Jerman di Italia Utara. Namun pemberontakan antara penduduk Roma dan suku-suku Italia terus berlanjut—hingga pasukan Marius tidak bisa membatasi masalah ini. Maka dari itu, salah seorang jendral Roma, <b>Lucius Sulla (138-78 SM)</b> mengambil alih kekuasaan dari Marius dan memadamkan pemberontakan. Pada 79 SM, dia menjalankan pemerintahan diktator selama 3 tahun.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Pemberontakan yang terus berlanjut seperti di Spanyol, Suriah dan Palestina berhasil dipadamkan oleh <b>Pompey (106-48 SM)</b> sebagi pewaris politik Sulla. Da juga berhasil memberantas bajak laut di Laut Tengah. Akibat tindakannya tidak mendapat pengakuan dari Senat serta tentara-tentaranya tidak mendapat bayaran dari Senat, dia bersekutu dengan <b>Julius Caesar (100-44 SM) </b>dan <b>Crassus (115-53 SM)</b> membentuk <b>Triumvirat I (60 SM)</b>. Tujuan mereka adalah mengakhiri perang sipil serta mengontrol pemerintahan seluruh romawi.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Perang Saudara</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Setelah Crassus meninggal ( 53 SM), Triumvirat I , yang selama ini untuk sementara berhasil menegakkan kekuasaan Romawi atas daerah-daerah yang ditaklukannya, berakhir. Julius Caesar (100-44 SM) seorang ahli militer, ahli pemerintahan, dan juga budayawan mengambil alh menjadi konsul dan mampu mewujudkan wilayah kekuasaan yang kuat. <i>Imperium Romanum</i> mencangkup wilayah inggris ke timur sampai mesopotamia dan keselatan hingga mesir. Sebelum itu , Macedonia (197 SM), Syria (190 SM), Afrika Utara dan Mesir (47 SM) juga telah dikuasai. Pasukan Romawi memiliki moto <i>‘Vini, Vidi, Vici’</i> (Saya datang, saya melihat, saya menang). Julius Caesar membuat sebuah buku dengan judul De Bello Gallicia, tentang peperangan di Galia (Prancis). Mereka memilki angkatan perang yang kuat sehingga dapat mewujudkan Imperium Romanum.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Wilayah yang luas dan perebutan kekuasaan menjadi masalah terbesar bagi kerajaan Romawi kuno.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Perang Saudara I (85 SM)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Terjadi antara Sulla yang mengalahkan Barbar di Timur. Setelah kembali ke ibu kota Roma, Sulla kembali berperang, melawan Marius yang memimpin kaum Optimat.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Perang Saudara II (73-44 SM)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Pada tahun 60 SM terbentuk Triumvirat I. Julius Caesar berjasa dalam menduduki Galia (prancis), Krassus berhasil memadamkan pemberontakan budak belian di Spartacus (73-71 SM), dan Pompey berjasa menyusun kekuatan di Roma menguasai Syria. Karena Crassus terbunuh oleh orang Part (52 SM), dan dia tidak suka atas tindakan Caesar di Gaul (Prancis) serta kdudukannya sebagai konsul, maka pompey berusaha meninggalkan Julius dan bergabung dengan senat dan berusaha untuk menyingkirkan Caersar dan menjadikannya warga biasa. Julius langsung meninggalkan Galia menuju Roma. Terjadilah perang sipil berdarah di Spanyol, Italia, Afrka, sampai mesir. Pasukan Pompey dan senat dikalahkan di <b>Pharsalus</b> (semenanjung Balkan). Pompey yang lari ke Mesir terbunuh dan sisa-sisa pasukannya dihancurkan oleh Julius Caesar di Spanyol (45 SM). Di mesir, Caesar merestorasi Ratu Cleopatra dari dinasti Ptolomeus terakhir ke tahtanya semula. Setelah memenangkan perang terhadap pemberontak di Asia kecil (Turki), dia mengirim pesan ke Roma yang berbunyi ‘<i>Vini, Vidi, Vici</i>’. Julius Caesar tampil sebagai penguasa tunggal (diktator), konsul (pengawal tinggi) sensor dan tribun (pemimpin rakyat).</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Julius Caesar memimpin degan kecerdikan dan keahliannya. Di bawah kekuasaannya, wilayah Roma memiliki 22 koloni di Afrika, Spanyol, dan Prancis. Kaum Proletar memperoleh pembagian tanah. Namun, Julius terbunuh oleh Brutus Kassius (44 SM), anggota senat yang tidak menyukainya.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Perang Saudara III (44-22 SM)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kematian Julius Caesar dibalas oleh <b>Marcus Antonius</b>, Letnan yang pernah mengabdi pada Julius Caesar bersama <b>Lapidus</b>, dan <b>Octavianus</b>, kemenakan Julius Caesar. Mereka berhasil mengalahkan Brutus dan Kassius dalam pertempuran di Filipi, semenanjung Balikan (42 SM). Triumfirat II ini membagi wilayah menjadi 3</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">:</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 106.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">ü<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Antonius di bagian timur</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 106.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">ü<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Octavianus di bagian barat</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 106.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">ü<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Lafidus di Afrika.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Perang saudara kembali terjadi. Octavianus merebut Afrika dari tangan Lapidus.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Perang Saudara IV (31 SM)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Antonius berusaha menduduki mesir. Tapi, dia terpikat dan menikah dengan Ratu Cleopatra dari mesir—dan menceraikan Octavia, adik Octavianus. Hal tersebut tidak disukai oleh Octavianus sehingga dia me-nuduh Antonius sebagai pembohong besar dan arogan. Dia menyerang Mesir pada 32 SM. Antonius merasa terdesak di pertempuran di <b>laut Actium (31 SM)</b>. Akhirnya Antonius dan Ratu Cleopatra bunuh diri. Octavianus berhasil merestorasi kekuasan dan mengakhiri perang sipil. Sejak tahun 30 SM, dia menjadi penguasa tunggal Roma.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(7)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Imperium Romawi</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Octavianus (31 SM-14 M)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">De</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">n</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">gan kekalahan Antonius maka Octavianus keluar sebagai pemenang sekaligus penguasa (konsul) seluruh Romawi. Dia menjadikan senat sebagai partner pemerintahan yang tugas-tugasnya disesuaikan dengan kehendaknya.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Untuk mengukuhkannya sebagai penguasa tunggal, senat mem-berinya gelar <i>princips civitatis</i> (warganegara pertama), dan memilihnya sebagai <i>tribunicia potestas</i> (penguasa tunggal) atas tribune-tribune serta memiliki hak veto undang-undang yang dibuat senat. Pada 12 SM, dia ju-ga menjadi <i>pontifex maximus</i> (pemimpin agama). Sumber utama kekua-saannya adalah sebagai komandan angkatan bersenjata Romawi. Gelarnya adalah <i>imperator</i>, sebagai penghargaan orang Romawi terhadap jendral yang memenangkan perang, menjadikan dia sebagai penguasa atas semua usur pemerintahan atau <i>emperor</i> (kaisar). Oleh senat dia juga diberi gelar <i>Augustus</i> (paling tinggi). Rakyat membiarkan dia memerintah sendiri karena mereka sudah bosan dengan perang saudara selama ini. Pada masanya Romawi mencapai puncak kejayaan dan rakyat hidup sejahtera. Wilayah yang terbentuk adalah dari Inggris sampai Mesopotamia, ke Utara sampai Sungai Rhein dan Donau serta ke selatan sampai Gurun Sahara.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Nero (54-58 SM)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar ini terkenal dengan kekejaman dan kegemaran anehnya, yaitu sangat senang melihat penderitaan orang lain. Dia tega membunuh istri da ibunya karena mencela perbuatannya. Orang-orang kristen dikejar-kejar, dibaka, disiksa, dibunuh, dan kota Roma dibakar (64 M). Dia mati bunuh diri karena terjadi pemberontakan.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Vespasianus (69-79 M)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar ini menggantikan Kaisar Nero. Setelah menang dari perang saudar, dia berhasil menata kembali kota menjadi aman dan tertib. Pemberontaan bangsa Bataf (belanda) dipimpin Klandius Sivillis dapat ditundukkan (70 M). Dia juga membangun coloseum (amphiteater) yang besar untuk pertunjukkan gladiator—pertunjukkan perkelahian manusia dengan binatang buas atau perkelahian antara binatang buas dengan binatang buas.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Titus (79-81 M)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Dia terkenal karena menaklukkan bangsa Yahudi. Pada masa pemerintahannya Gunung Visuvius meletus dan menimbun kota Herkulanum dan Pompeye.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Domitianus (81-96 M)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Pada masa pemerintahannya dibuat benteng dari kota Goble</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Nezva</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Dia adalah pengganti Domitianus. Setelah berhasil merebut keku-asaan di Romawi, Kaisar Nezva menunjuk penggantinya sebelum turun tahta.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Hadrianus (117-136 M)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Dia mendirikan benteng pertahanan di Skotlandia. Dia mendirikan kuil Dewa Jupiter di pusat peribadatan bangsa Yahudi (Bait Allah) di daerah Yudea sehingga timbul pemberontakan bangsa Yahudi tetapi dapat dipadamkan.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Antanius Prius (136-161 M)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Markus Aurelius (161-180 M)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Markus Aurelius gugur di Wina dalam pertempuran dengan bangsa Barbar Jerman untuk mempertahankan perbatasan daerah sungai Donau. Dia sebelumnya telah menunjuk putranya, Commodus sebagai penggantinya.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Diocletianus (284 M-305 M)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Setelah masa pemerintahan Markus Aurelius, terjadi perang saudara yang sangat panjang. Para Kaisar silih berganti. Setelah tahun 248 M keadaan menjadi tenteram sampai 305 M. Untuk mengatur pemerintahan dan kekuasaan yang sangat luas, wilyah negara dibagi menjadi 4 prefktur:</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Galia: Prancis, Inggris, Spanyol, Maroko</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Italia: Italia sampai Donau</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Hlyria: Daria, Macedonia, Yunani</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Daerah timur: Syria sampai Mesopotamia</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Tiap prefektur dibagi provinsi-provinsi, dan tiap provinsi terbagi dalam distrik-distrik. Tiap distrik dibagi menjadi kota. Dia membagi Romawi barat, yang dikuasai oleh kaisar lain, dan Romawi timur, yang dia perintah. Namun kedua wilayah ini saling berebut kekuasaan.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Constantine Agung (312M-337 M)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Constantine dapat mengembalikan kebesaran Romawi, dan untuk kepentingan perdagangan ibu kota di pindah ke Byzantium (Constan-tinopel—sekarang Istambul). Kaisar Constantine memberikan kebebasan warga negaranya untuk memluk agama.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Teodosius (390 M)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Pada masanya, agama kristen dijadikan agama negara. Setelah ia wafat, Roma terpecah menjadi 2 (400 SM):</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Romawi barat, ibukota Roma. dipimpin oleh Honorius</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Romawi timur, ibukota Constantinopel, dipimpin oleh Arkadius.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Yustinianus</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaisar Yustinianus dapat mempersatukan wilayah Byzantium: Asia Kecil, Semenanjung Balkan, Syria, Armenia, Mesopotamia, mesir, dan pantai utara Afrika. Romawi Timur menghadap 2 lawan berat, yaitu bangsa barbar jerman di Romawi Barat dan kerajaan Sasanid di timur. Untuk menghadapi bahaya dari timur, di Constantinopel dibuat benteng yang benar-benar kuat</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(8)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Runtuhnya Romawi</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Romawi Barat (476 M)</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Secara intern, menghadapi masalah berat karena Patria Patista (kesetiaan warga terhadap negara) sangat merosot.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Bangsa Barbar (baik jerman, Frank, Vandal, Got Barat, dan Got Timur serta Anglo Saxon) selalu berusaha menguasai wilayah Romawi.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Romawi Timur</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Pada regional ini, sepeninggal Kaisar Yustiniatus menjadi mundur.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Pemerintah terlalu mengutamakan pembangunan gedung-gedung mewah sedangkan rakyat terlantar.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Ancaman dari Kerajaan Turki Usmani yang juga ingin menguasai perdagangan di Byzantium. Pada taun 1453 M raja dari Turki bernama Sultan Muhammad II dengan kekuatan ratusan ribu tentara berhasil menguasai Constantinopel.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(9)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Peninggalan Bangsa Romawi</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Seni Bangunan</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Pantheon: rumah dewa bagi orang Romawi.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Coloseum: stadion dengan tangga batu berkeliling untuk penonton.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Amphiteater: gedung pertunjukan terbuka.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Limes: rangkaian perbentengan yang panjangnya hingga puluhan kilimeter.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Forum Romanum: Komplek gedung pemerintahan.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Eni</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <span lang="IN">Sastra</span></span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Virgilius Maro Publish: mengarang buku “Aeneid” dan “Georgies”.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> Julius</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> Caesar: ”De Bello Gallio”.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Ovidius: “Metamorphose”.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Tacitus: “Germania”</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Plautus: karya-karyanya bercorak komedi (seperti “Manaechmi”).</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Titus dan Livius: mengarang buku sejarah Romawi.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Cicero: ahli filsafat, politik, dan pidato. Karyanya bersifat patriotik.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Ilmu pengetahuan</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Ilmu filsafah: Seneca da Marcus Aurelius.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Ilmu Sejarah: Livius.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Ilmu kedokteran: Operasi Caesar—ini karena pertama kali dilakukan untuk menolong</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">kelahiranJulius Caesar.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 92.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: SimSun; font-size: 10pt;">六</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Cabang Olahraga: 2 semboyan:</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 4cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">“Men sana in Corpore sano”: dalam tubuh yang sehat terdapat jiwa yang kuat</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 4cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">“Vini, Vidi, Vici”: saya lihat, saya datang, saya menang”.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Hukum</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 78pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Hukum Romawi mengutamakan keadilan, kemanusiaan, dan persamaan semua golongan. Ahli hukum terkenal romawi adalah <b>Pampinianus</b> dan <b>Kaisar Theodosius.</b></span><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><h1 style="break-after: avoid; color: #365f91; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 21.4667px; margin: 24pt 0cm 0.0001pt 1cm; position: relative; text-indent: -1cm;"><span style="background-color: white;">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Peradaban di Amerika</span></h1><h2 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: normal; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Bangsa Maya</span></h2><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Suku Maya mendiami daerah Meksiko Selatan dan bagian-bagian Amerika Tengah lainnya. Pusat kebudayaannya terdapat di Semenanjung Yukatan. Kota paling awal berdirinya diperkirakan pada abad ke-3 di hutan Guatemala yang lebat dan yang terakhir diperkirakan dibangun pada abad ke-10 dan abad ke-11 pada sebuah dataran di Yukatan bagian Utara. Kota-kota ini merupakan peninggalan orang-orang Maya yang memiliki tingkat kebudayaan yang tinggi dengan catatan arsitektur paling beraneka ragam dan paling maju. Kebudayaan suku Maya ini berkembang dari abad ke-1 S M sampai mulainya penggalan Masehi.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Kebudayaan Maya berpusat pada kehidupan agraris. Mereka menanam jagung, merica dan buah-buahan. Mereka memelihara kalkun dan anjing serta menangkap ikan di sepanjang pantai. Mereka juga memintal kapas dan menjualnya ke tempat lain. Dengan demikian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa orang-orang Maya melakukan kegiatan perdagangan selain bertani. Mereka membawa barang dagangannya langsung pada pembeli yang jaraknya sangat jauh di Amerika Tengah.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Organisasi sosial yang dmiliki oleh suku bangsa Maya ini ditandai dengan berkuasanya golongan elit yang kaya, yang juga melakukan perdagangan, golongan elit juga berfungsi sebagai pemimpin upacara ritual dalam kepercayaan mereka. Mereka juga termasuk golongan terdidik yang mempunyai hak istimewa untuk mempelajari ilmu pengetahuan. Di luar golongan itu, ada para petani dan budak yang memiliki oleh golongan lain. Bangsa Maya telah memiliki sistem tulisan yang mirip dengan Hierogliyph. Tulisan ini digunakan untuk mencatat peristiwa penting. Tulisan yang mereka kembangkan berfungsi pula sebagai sejarah pencatat kelahiran, perkawinan, dan kematian raja-raja Maya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Dengan berkembangnya tulisan, ilmu pengetahuan pun berkembang, bangsa ini telah mengenal kalender dengan tahunnya berjumlah 18 bulan yang tiap bulannya berjumlah 20 hari, dan ada yang satu bulan berjumlah 5 hari. Sehingga pertahun ada 365 hari. Mereka juga telah mengembangkan matematika. Selain itu, astronomi ialah salah satu ilmu yang mereka kembangkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Bangsa Maya kuno membangun sebuah monumen dan mendirikan kota batu megah untuk para dewa. Sedikitnya ada 80 situs penting peninggalan orang-orang Maya bertebaran di Amerika Tengah. Beberapa situs kuil bertinggi lebih dari 60 meter.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Kebudayaan Maya berkembang dengan subur terutama di Guatemala dan Yukatan. Walau demikian, kebudayaan itu dipengaruhi kuatnya kebudayaan Teotihuakan dari Meksiko bagian tengah. Sebagai salah satu kota terbesar di dunia, kota Teotihuakan pada masa puncaknya dihuni oleh sekitar 100.000 penduduk yang tinggal di dalam Adobe atau rumah-rumah dari bata mentah dan memuja dewa di piramid besar dari batu yang sampai kini masih banyak ditemukan di dekat kota Meksiko. Dari abad ke-4 sampai abad ke-8 pengaruhnya menyebar di Amerika Tengah. Para arsitek serta tukang mencontoh pola bangunan dan pola hiasannya. Bahkan setelah Toetihuakan jatuh ke tangan orang-orang yang belum beradab pada tahun 700, wibawanya masih tetap hidup.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Sebagian besar bangunan yang berjumlah lebih dari 200 di Kaminaluyu sebagai tempat peninggalan purbakala suku bangsa Maya di pinggir batar daya kota Guatemala yang dibangun pada masa itu. Yang terbesar di antaranya adalah batu berbentuk piramid yang tingginya lebih dari 26 meter dengan dua ruang makam di dalamnya. Tubuh raja diletakkan di atas panggung kayu di pusat salah satu ruang makam. Mayat ini dikitari tubuh-tubuh lain yang diduga jenazah orang-orang yang dikurbankan untuk mengawal rajanya menempuh perjalanan ke dunia lain. Di dalam ruangan ini juga ditemukan hiasan dari batu-batu berharga, tulang dan kulit kerang, serta berang pecah belah yang menunjukan kekayaan kebudayaan tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Reruntuhan Uaxactun adalah peninggalan di daerah Maya bagian tengah yang umurnya lebih muda. Salah satu bangunan yang berupa pelataran bekas kaki kuil berbentuk piramid bertangga terpancang dengan tampak muka berhias. Bangunan ini didirikan sekitar tahun 250 Masehi. Peninggalan semacam ini ditemukan ini juga di daerah Maya bagian utara.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Pada jaman Klasik, tahun 300-500, kebudayaan suku bangsa Maya di daerah tengah mengalami puncak kejayaan. Arsitekturnya berkembang dengan adanya peningkatan mutu bangunan. Salah satu cirinya adalah dikembangkannya bangunan batu yang sebagian besar merupakan bangunan suci seperti kuil atau biara. Kuil di Tikal yang tingginya mencapai sekitar 888 meter adalah kuil tertinggi. Biara dalam kebudayaan Maya kadang-kadang mencakup area yang sangat luas sehingga menyerupai kota, lebih cocok disebut tempat pusat upacara keagamaan dilangsungkan. Namun antara tahun 800 sampai 950, pusat kegamaan tersebut satu-persatu dilupakan dan ditinggalkan orang. Bangsa Maya mengalami keruntuhan karena penaklukan pasukan Hernando Cortez pada tahun 1521.<o:p></o:p></span></div><h2 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 19.9333px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Bangsa Inca</span></h2><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Inca merupakan sebuah kelompok klan yang mula-mula mendiami daerah Peru. Menurut legenda, asal-usul suku bangsa Inca berawal dari sekelompok anak dewa matahari, yang berasal dari sebuah gua di sebelah tenggara kota Cuzco. Bangsa Inca telah mendiami daerah Cuzco sejak kira-kira tahun 1200. tetapi sejak penaklukan oleh kekuasaan Panchacuti dalam tahun 1438, bangsa Inca mulai memperluas wilayahnya dengan menaklukan daerah-daerah sekitarnya. Akhirnya mereka membentuk suatu wilayah kekuasaan besar dan luas yang membentang dari Quito di Utara sampai Chile bagian tengah. Bahasa Inca menyebut wilayah kekuasaannya Tabuantisuyu, artinya daerah yang meliputi empat wilayah. Nama itu menunjukan bahwa seluruh wilayah kekuasaan bangsa Inca terbagi menjadi menjadi empat geografis, yang dibagi menjadi lebih dari 80 propinsi. Penguasa tertinggi berada di tangan seorang pemimpin yang dianggap sebagai wakil dewa matahari.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Kebudayaan Inca berkembang di sepanjang belahan barat Amerika Serikat terutama Peru. Bukti-bukti arkeologis mengenai keberadaan kebudayaan Inca, yang berasal dari fase Killke (1200-1380), ditemukan di daerah sekitar Cuzco di dataran tinggi Peru bagian selatan. Berdasarkan hasil evakuasi terhadap sistus-situs di daerah tersebut diperoleh gambaran bahwa Inca ketika itu hanyalah merupakan suatu wilayah yang kecil saja.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Seperti halnya suku bangsa lainnya Amerika, bangsa Inca memiliki watak militer sehingga perluasan wilayah Imperium dilakukan dengan cara peperangan. Sejak kekuasaan dipegang oleh Pachacuti yang memerintah tahun 1438 – 1471, Inca memperluas wilayah kekuasaannya dengan menaklukan daerah-daerah sekitarnya. Selama pemerintahan Topa Inca sebagai pengganti Pachacuti, wilayah kekuasaan Inca diperluas dengan manklukan daerah-daerah Pantai Peru bagian selatan, Bolivia Selatan., Argebtina barat laut, dan Chile. Pengganti Topa Inca adalah Huayna Capac yang memerintah dari tahun 1493 sampai tahun 1525 M. setelah meniggalnya Huayna Capac, terjadi perebutan kekuasaan antara Huascar dan Attahualpa.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Bangsa Inca memiliki mata pencaharian dari kehidupan agraris atau pertanian. Sejak tahun 600–1000 Masehi, bangsa Inca telah berkembang dalam bidang pertanian. Mereka membuat sistem terasering untuk menahan banjir. Untuk mengolah tanah, mereka menggunakan bajak yang terbuat dari perunggu. Tanaman yang bayak ditanam oleh masyarakat Inca adalah kacang-kacangan, jagung, merica, tomat, dan kentang. Hasil pertanian ini digunakan untuk mmenuhi konsumsi petani, juga untuk makan tentara dalam jumlah besar, golongan birokrasi dan ribuan buruh pabrik. Minuman khas dari bangsa Inca adalah Chica yaitu semacam bir yang terbuat dari jagung.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Bangsa Inca adalah bangsa yang bersifat nasional. Penggunaan bahasa nasional dipaksanakan oleh raja kepada penduduknya. Pada masa Topa Inca, bahasa Quechua ditetapkan sebagai <i>lingua franca</i> di seluruh wilayah Tahuanntinsuyu.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Bangsa Inca memiliki organisasi masyarakat yang teratur. Sebagai unit dasar atau paling bawah dari organisasi masyarakat Inca adalah <i>ayllu</i>, yaitu keluarga yang bersifat endogama berdasar garis keturunan laki-laki. Kelompok <i>ayllu</i> yang bersal dari satu wilayah kemudian membentuk kelompok lebih besar yang disebut <i>saya</i>. Tiap-tiap wilayah (propinsi) biasanya terdiri atas dua atau tiga wilayah administratif (waman). Kekuasaan tertinggi pemerintah Inca terdiri ada ditangan seorang kaisar yang menyatakan dirinya sebagai keturunan dewa matahari Inti. Oleh karena itu gelar yang dipakai penguasai Inca dalah Intip Cori (yang bererti Putra Dewa Matahari). Di bawahnya adalah pejabat yang disebut <i>apo</i> sebagai penguasa tiap-tiap wilayah bagian (4 wilayah). Di bawah apo ada <i>tokrikoq</i> yang menjadi penguasa tiap propinsi.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Bangsa Inca memiliki ilmu pengetahuan yang maju dan berkembang. Walaupun ilmu pengetahuan yang berkembang di Inca tidak dapat mengungguli perkembangan ilmu pengatahuan di Aztec dan Maya. Dalam bidang Matematika dan Astronomi bangsa Inca tidak dapat mengungguli kemajuan di Aztec dan Maya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Bangsa Inca memiliki perkembangan yang pesat dalam bidang kesenian, terutama seni bangun. Seperti dalam pembuatan tekstil dan keramik, pembangunan benteng-benteng pertahanan, dan jalan-jalan raya yang lebar. Kemajuan bidang seni ini tidak dapat dipisahkan dari kemmapuan pemerintah mengatur masyarakat.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Dalam bidang sosial, raja sangat menarruh perhatian dalam hal perkawinan. Laki-laki atau perempuan yang sudah dewasa dan belum memiliki pasangan diplilihkan orang lain lain sebagai pendampingnya. Kemudian mereka dikawinkan dalam upacara umum.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Dalam bidang religi, bangsa Inca mempercayai dewa matahari. Raja-raja mereka dipercaya memiliki hubungan genealogis atau asal-usul keturunan dengan dewa matahari. Dewa matahari ternyata sangat besar pengaruhnya dalam masyarakat Inca dan bahkan pada masyarakat Inca terdapat suatu kepercayaan bahwa dewa Matahari itulah yang menurunkan keluarga raja Inca. Oleh karena itu, setiap raja yang sedang memerintah dipandang sama dengan dewa matahari. Tidak diketahui dengan pasti, apakah bangsa Inca juga melakukan upacara pengorbanan manusia seperti bangsa Aztec.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Di samping memuja dewa matahari, masyarakat Inca juga melakukan pemujaan terhadap roh para leluhurnya. Pemujaan itu dilakukan dengan suatu upacara yang luar biasa besarnya. Di Kuzko mereka menyimpan mummi dalam bungkusan kain, konon mummi itu adalah para Raja yang memerintah pada zaman Manko Kapak (Inca yang pertama). Mummi tersebut ditempatkan pada sebuah rumah yang megah, seperti istana, sekakan-akan mereka masih hidup secara bergantian dikeluarkan untuk menyaksikan upacara. Anggota keluarga raja yang kurang penting, para bangsawan tinggi dan rakyat yang mampu mengawetkan jenazah keluarganya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Kepercayaan terhadap dewa di Inca tidak memainkan peranan yang meliputi seluruh kehidupan namun kerajaan Inca mempunyai lembaga agama yang mantap sebagai bagian dari pemerintah dan berada di bawah pemerintahan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Perkembangan kebudayaan Inca yang begitu tinggi ini akhirnya mengalami kehancuran. Bangsa Inca mengalami keruntuhan karena penaklukan pasukan Francisco Pizzaro tahun 1533.<o:p></o:p></span></div><h2 style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Cambria, "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 19.9333px; margin: 10pt 0cm 0.0001pt 49.65pt; position: relative; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Bangsa Aztec</span></h2><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Suku bangsa Nahua, yang terakhir tiba di tanah tinggi Meksiko, mewarisi rumpun budaya yang luas di daerah </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">tersebut</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">. Salah satu diantara suku itu adalah Mexica-Aztec atau Aztec. Pada mulanya bangsa Aztec merupakan suku yang </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">pertama</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> kali berjuang di daerah pinggiran wilayah tersebut. Selama pengembaraan mereka sebagai kelompok luar-garis, bangsa Aztec kadang-kadang mengalami kemerosotan sampai berpakaian dedaunan dan makan serangga. Pada sekitar tahun 1325 Masehi bangsa Aztec sampai ditempat yang sekarang menjadi kota Meksiko. Waktu itu tempat tersebut merupakan gususan danau paya dan pulau kecil.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Di sebuah </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">pulau</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> di danau Tecoco, bangsa Aztec memperoleh semacam wangsit karena telah meihat seekor elang dengan seekor ular dimulutnya, yang sedang bertengger pada pada sebatang kaktus. Karena menganggap hal tersebut sbeagi pertanda gaib, para pendeta mengikrarkan bahwa pulau tersebut telah dipilih untuk bangsa Aztec oleh dewa-dewa mereka. Distulah mereka membangun kota Tenochtitlan. Mereka memperluas kota tersebut dengan membuat rakit-rakit yang terbuat dari anyaman ranting dan rotan yang uruk tanah dan tanaman. Di daerah danau ini mereka mengembangkan pertanian yang bersifat primitif. Kota Tenocthitlan yang didirikan oleh bangsa Aztec kemudian berkembang menjadi pusat kegiatan ritual. Bangunan pemujaan berbentuk piramid banyak didirikan.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Bangsa Aztec adalah bangsa yang gemar berperang, bagi mereka perang merupakan bagian dari budaya sendiri dan bagian dari sistem kepercayaan. Bangsa Aztec menyembah banyak dewa atau politheisme. Mereka menyembah dewa matahari yaitu Huitzilochti. Mereka mempercayai bahwa matahari adalah sumber kehidupan dan harus terus dipelihara, agar terus beredar pada orbitnya dan berputar terbit dan tenggelam. Untuk itu diperlukan pelumas yang murni yaitu darah manusia. Mereka meyakini bahwa pengorbanan manusia merupakan tugas suci dan wajib dilakukan agar dewa matahari tetap memberikan kemakmuran bagi manusia. Upacara pengorbanan dilakukan diatas <i>altar</i> dipuncak piramid dengan cara mengambil jantung korban untuk pendeta. Upacara pengorbanan manusia juga dilakukan secara masal dengan cara membunuh banyak orang.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Ada tiga hipotesis yang dilakukan oleh para Antropolog mengenai alasan pengorbanan manusia disamping alasan untuk pengorbanan dewa, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 6pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">(1) Pengorbanan dilakukan untuk mengurangi jumlah penduduk, terutama sejak jumlah tawanan perang meningkat dengan pesat dibandingkan dengan jumlah kelahiran.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 6pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">(2) Untuk memberikan kepada rakyat mayat-mayat yang dikorbankan sebagai sumber protein dan vitamin. Hipotesis ini snagat lemah, karena bangsa Aztec menghasilkan jagung, kacang, serta memlihara anjing, ayam dan kalkun.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 6pt 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">(3) Pendapat yang lebih rasional adalah untuk menakut-nakuti para pembangkang dan pemberontak, agar mereka tidak melakukan perlawanan terhadap penguasa raja. Para tawanan perang banyak dijadikan korban dan jumlah besar untuk dewa matahari, orang-orang yang berslah juga yang bersalah juga jadi sasaran untuk jadi korban seperti jenderal yang salah dalam memimpin perang, para koruptor, hakim yang keliru membuat keputusan, serta pejabat negara yang berbuat salah, termasuk orang yang memasuki daerah terlarang istana raja.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Dalam buku Negara dan Bangsa (1990:208), disebutkan bahwa Huzlopochtli, khususnya, demikian rakus sehingga pada upacara istimewa ribuan manusia dikorbankan sebagai sesaji untuknya dalam waktu satu hari saja. Monte Zuma II pernah mengorbankan 5100 orang korban dalam satu upacara peringatan tahtanya. Pada waktu Ahuitzolt yang berkuasa pada abad ke-15, paling tidak 20.000 jiwa manusia dijadikan korban dalam upacara. Calon korban digiring ke puncak piramid tempat pendeta saling berebut bagian mereka masing-masing dan memotong jantung si korban dengan pisau batu gelas, lalu memprsembahkannya hangat-hangat dan masih berlumur darah ke batu altar sang dewa. Untuk sesaji yang sedemikian massalnya itu, bangsa Aztec tidak dapat mengandalkan sukarelawan dan oleh sebab itu mereka sering mengirim rombongan pejuang ke wilayah sekutunya untuk menangkapi calon-calon korban.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Pada puncak kejayaan kekuasaan Aztec, Tenochittlan merupakan pusat upacara berdarah yang semakin menjadi-menjadi. Berbagai jamuan sakramental dan ritus-ritus lainnya, menciptakan suatu kehidupan yang dibayang-bayangi oleh lambang kematian. Bagi bangsa Aztec, darah manusia merupakan bagian upacara untuk mencegah kehancuran dunia, yang menurut mereka ditandai oleh lenyapnya matahari. Upacara kurban bagi bangsa Aztec bukanlah hal yang mengerikan, begitu pula bagi calon korban. Menurut kepercayaan mereka, kematian ditangan para pendeta merupakan suatu kehormatan. Korban itu dipersembahkan kepada dewa-dewa dengan cara membelah dada dan mengambil hatinya, agar tidak marah dan lapar dan mendatangkan bencana alam. Kepercayaan ini mempengaruhi pendangan orang Aztec. Sejak masa kanak-kanak mereka telah dilatih untuk siap dijadikan kurban ritual bila mereka tertewan dalam peperangan. Mati sebagai kurban upacara bagi mereka berarti ikut menyumbangkan hati dan darah untuk dipersembahkan kepada dewa matahari, dan dengan demikian ikut memperkuat matahari dalam peperangan sehari-hari melawan gelap (malam) sehingga mereka menjadi bagian penting dari matahari.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Bangsa Aztec memiliki seni bangun atau arsitektur yang amat tinggi. Ketika bangsa Spanyol datang ke kota Tenocl (Mexico City) mereka menyaksikan kemajuan bangsa ini. Di sini terdapat bangunan-bangunan seperti aquadec atau bangunan lain, tempat jalan raya menuju kota, jalan-jalan lebar, serta kanal yang melewati kota serta jembatan diatasnya. Bangunan-bangunan tersebut menggunakan teknologi tinggi menurut jamannya. Di pusat kota dibangun kuil-kuil besar sebagai persembahan kepada dewa matahari. Tinggi bangunan tersebut 30 meter, terdiri atas tiga tingkat, yang masing-masing tingkat memiliki 120 anak tangga. Di bangunnya jalan-jalan dan kanal-kanal yang lebar adalah untuk memudahkan lalu lintas orang dan barang dagangan. Dalam kegitan perdagangan tersebut mereka memperjualbelikan bebek, ayam, kalkun, kelinci, dan rusa.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Arsitektur bangsa Aztec tergolong sederhana, lebih mementingkan fungsi daripada keindahan lahiriah. Di pegunungan, rumah orang Aztec terbuat dari batu bata yang dijemur, mirip batako yang kita kenal di Indonesia. Di dataran rendah, rumah mereka berdinding ranting-ranting atau batang padi yang diplester dengan tanah liat dan beratapkan alang-alang. Sebagi tambahan pada tempat tinggal utama, umumnya mereka mempunyai bangunan lain seperti tempat penyimpanan dan tempat seluruh keluarga mandi uap. Orang Aztec yang kaya memiliki rumah dari batako atau batu yang dibangun mengelilingi suatu Patio, yaitu ruang luas yang terbuka di tengah rumah.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Kuil Aztec dan bangunan lain dengan dekorasi patung merupkan salah satu karya terindah di Amerika. Tetapi hanya sedikit peninggalan karya arsitektur Aztec yang masih dapat ditemukan. Orang Spanyol, yang beragama kristen, telah memusnahkan kuil-kuil dan segala peninggalan keagamaan orang Aztec. Mereka bahkan telah menghancurkan kota lama Tenochitlan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 10pt;">Hasil pertanian yang diolah di ladang-ladang pertanian adalah alpukat, kacang merah dan jagung, mereka juga membuat kerajinan dari emas dan perak untuk perhiasan. Dari kegiatan dagang dan jenis barang dagangannya yang diperjualbelikan dan sarana penunjang yang dibangunnya para ahli menyimpulkan bahawa bangsa Aztec memiliki tingkat kebudayaan dan peradaban yang tinggi. Peradaban ini runtuh karena penaklukan oleh bangsa Spanyol di bawah pimpinan Hernando Cortez pada tahun 1521.</span></div>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-14039651338800692522022-04-01T15:02:00.005-07:002022-04-01T15:02:48.813-07:00Perjalanan Panjang Menuju Kesepakatan Kriteria Hijriyah<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4qNVrNaIAUrWB78ejnQXnrN5ePKyJyGYwk1-iW6pb2lqyoNNkG33d-idacodBogU53gzTyKL2WmH1BDVx7iBtvGo2ifbtbMecVEICkZh_mtKuU-KE0Lf3jFtVthtrsu0X84k0GExmLABoSQ71oEN73mYmCXjFrM7Mf-QVca7Fd80mFmUl_LTlbAj_KQ/s720/IMG-20220402-WA0006.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="287" data-original-width="720" height="128" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4qNVrNaIAUrWB78ejnQXnrN5ePKyJyGYwk1-iW6pb2lqyoNNkG33d-idacodBogU53gzTyKL2WmH1BDVx7iBtvGo2ifbtbMecVEICkZh_mtKuU-KE0Lf3jFtVthtrsu0X84k0GExmLABoSQ71oEN73mYmCXjFrM7Mf-QVca7Fd80mFmUl_LTlbAj_KQ/s320/IMG-20220402-WA0006.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><span><a name='more'></a></span><div><br /></div>Sebagaimana telah diperhitungkan (bukan sekadar diperkirakan), pemerintah RI menetapkan bahwa Ramadhan tahun 1434 ini akan dimulai pada hari <b>Ahad 3 April 2022</b>, karena tinggi hilal pada saat matahari terbenam pada hari Jumat 1 April 2022 di seluruh Indonesia belum setinggi 2 derajat di atas cakrawala, dengan kata lain, tidak terlihat. Meskipun demikian, perbedaan penanggalan hijriyah di masyarakat akan tetap ditolerir.<div><br /></div><div>Namun bagaimana dengan daerah-daerah lain di muka bumi ini? </div><div>Jika kita menerapkan kriteria yang sama dengan yang dipakai dalam sidang isbat Indonesia untuk menentukan awal Ramadhan, maka sudah tentu Benua Amerika akan memasuki Ramadhan pada hari Sabtu 2 April 2022, karena ketinggian hilal pada saat matahari terbenam di sana sudah bukan cuma 2 derajat lagi, melainkan 5 derajat di atas ufuk (https://moonsighting.com/ramadan-eid.html). Bahkan di Jazirah Arab pun, hilal mungkin sudah akan tampak karena tingginya sudah di atas 2 derajat ketika matahari terbenam di sana. (Silakan lihat peta terlampir, yang digambar memakai Accurate Hijri Calculator 2.2.1, untuk melihat cakupan wilayahnya.)</div><div>Sampai di sini, timbul pertanyaan: Masak sih Amerika puasanya lebih dulu daripada Indonesia? Amerika kan ada di BBB, sedangkan Indonesia di BBT, dan Bumi berotasi ke arah timur, jadi wajarnya Indonesia pergantian tanggalnya lebih awal dong, daripada Amerika? </div><div><br /></div><div>Pertanyaan ini sudah dicoba ditangani beberapa tahun silam, ketika tahun 2016 Diyanet (Kantor Urusan Keagamaan Turki) mengadakan Kongres Internasional Penyatuan Kalender Hijriyah Global di Istanbul, yang dihadiri astronom dan cendekiawan lainnya dari semua negara Muslim. Dalam konferensi itu, Dr. Yusuf Al-Qaradhawi selaku Kepala Dewan Fatwa dan Penelitian Eropa (ECFR) yang bermarkas di Dublin, Irlandia mengajukan Kalender Hijriyah Global, yang kemudian disetujui berdasarkan suara terbanyak. Kalender ini dibuat berdasarkan kriteria (yang selanjutnya disebut Kriteria Istanbul) sebagai berikut:</div><div>(1) Seluruh dunia dipandang sebagai satu kesatuan, sehingga bulan dimulai pada hari yang sama di seluruh dunia.</div><div>(2) Bulan dimulai apabila terjadi imkanur ru’yat di belahan bumi manapun sebelum pukul 12 malam UTC (07.00 WIB) dengan syarat ketinggian hilal minimal 5° dan elongasi (yakni jarak sudut dari bulan ke matahari) minimal 8° pada saat terbenam matahari.</div><div>(3) Apabila imkanur ru’yat pertama di muka bumi terjadi melewati pukul 12 malam UTC (07.00 WIB), bulan tetap dimulai dengan syarat:</div><div>a. terpenuhinya kriteria imkanur ru’yat (tinggi hilal minimal 5°, elongasi minimal 8°) dan telah terjadi konjungsi sebelum fajar di New Zealand, (Konjungsi itu maksudnya adalah matahari dan bulan berada pada posisi relatif barat-timur yang sama terhadap bumi. Pada saat terjadinya konjungsi (ijtima’) ini lahirlah bulan baru (new moon, bukan new month, kalau bahasa Arabnya ya wujudul hilal).)</div><div>b. imkanur ru’yat terjadi di daratan Amerika, bukan di lautan.</div><div><br /></div><div>(Sumber: https://tarjih.or.id/unduh-kalender-islam-global-1443-hijriah/ , dengan modifikasi)</div><div><br /></div><div>Jadi untuk kasus sekarang ini, meskipun di Indonesia hilal belum tampak pada saat matahari terbenam, tetapi karena hilal sudah tampak di bagian dunia lainnya (dalam hal ini Benua Amerika yang berwarna hijau pada gambar), maka penduduk Indonesia tetap mulai berpuasa pada hari Sabtu 2 April ini. Begitulah menurut Kalender Hijriyah Global. </div><div><br /></div><div>Hmm, berarti nggak pakai ru’yatul hilal dong, untuk menerapkan Kalender Hijriyah Global ini? Apakah nggak jadi salah secara syari’ah? </div><div><br /></div><div>Justru penyusunan Kalender Hijriyah Global ini adalah berdasarkan fatwa seorang qadhi Mesir bernama Ahmad Muhammad Shakir (Syakir) pada tahun 1939 yang karir tertingginya adalah Presiden Mahkamah Agung Syari’ah Mesir. Menurut pendapatnya, berdasarkan hadits Nabi, orang Arab menentukan awal bulan berdasarkan melihat hilal saja karena pada masa itu orang Arab masih belum tahu ilmu falak. Keadaan sekarang berbeda. Ilmu astronomi sudah berkembang jauh sampai bisa menghitung posisi bulan terhadap bumi, pukul berapa terjadi bulan baru Ramadhan maupun pukul berapa matahari akan terbenam di setiap titik di muka bumi ini ribuan tahun sebelum peristiwanya sendiri. Sebaliknya, ru’yatul hilal relatif makin sulit akibat polusi udara maupun hamburan cahaya. Bukankah penglihatan manusia memang terbatas?</div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxFjFXqkCjhAe087UYWBtkyld8zvClBxZC5ayaCDpYpGicKe15h0TjsX6qoARjpnpfLLt8Tt8m1Zt2baKKP-ldazXGKy_5gbPY_KEH14y1BxXl5Ab-_bq44SwlRPdukPoCAl-3cm5CfLNjh98kZWKL-tQxl2O19EV_7dTuTldtrl3vu2z8QknUrJdK7g/s720/IMG-20220402-WA0006.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="287" data-original-width="720" height="128" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxFjFXqkCjhAe087UYWBtkyld8zvClBxZC5ayaCDpYpGicKe15h0TjsX6qoARjpnpfLLt8Tt8m1Zt2baKKP-ldazXGKy_5gbPY_KEH14y1BxXl5Ab-_bq44SwlRPdukPoCAl-3cm5CfLNjh98kZWKL-tQxl2O19EV_7dTuTldtrl3vu2z8QknUrJdK7g/s320/IMG-20220402-WA0006.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><div><br /></div><span><!--more--></span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-87968352487951647912021-08-25T06:47:00.002-07:002021-08-25T06:47:52.940-07:00PEMANFAATAN PENGINDERAAN JAUH DAN SISTEM INFROMASI GEOGRAFIS UNTUK SUMBERDAYA MITIGASI DAN PEMBANGUNAN WILAYAH<h2 style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGHeB58f3kieu9hVAiq9QG6GUoILLJ0KCLQxOyfz5GimHsKlEM62zsGRSSD96jk5pqo-E46Z3uxGElMpMsfm4li8Agq4guQg0wvm0TxrhrwxeRgQr6Lphb9uPQjbtN4OZdDxIHQgevqH5b/s594/1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="221" data-original-width="594" height="119" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGHeB58f3kieu9hVAiq9QG6GUoILLJ0KCLQxOyfz5GimHsKlEM62zsGRSSD96jk5pqo-E46Z3uxGElMpMsfm4li8Agq4guQg0wvm0TxrhrwxeRgQr6Lphb9uPQjbtN4OZdDxIHQgevqH5b/s320/1.png" width="320" /></a></div><br /></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 6.9pt; margin-left: 25.2pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -21.35pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN">A.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN">DESKRIPSI SINGKAT </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 25.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Penginderaan jauh dan sistem informasi geografis telah banyak
diaplikasikan dalam berbagai bidang pembangunan pada saat ini. Penginderaan
jauh dan SIG memiliki kemampuan yang dapat saling melengkapi. Kombinasi dari
kedua metode ini terbukti memiliki kemampuan yang handal dan memberikan hasil
yang baik dalam berbagai kajian. Modul ini menjelaskan tentang sinergi metode
penginderaan jauh dan sistem informasi geografis, aplikasi untuk kajian sumber
daya, mitigasi bencana, dan perencanaan wilayah dan lingkungan.<span></span></span></p><a name='more'></a><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFterLLojozhrb6fJEVltiqTKltS7sbQlIvK5KQwh4evM7FfzfokpwQkMvQepD5uMxnaWh5q9i_7d7KlyKIpKxzFgeHf6V6jdZyMp4aaYEMmGC6csuZpvHwhuKL8d8D6e11mXGxpChwcNF/s594/1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="221" data-original-width="594" height="119" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFterLLojozhrb6fJEVltiqTKltS7sbQlIvK5KQwh4evM7FfzfokpwQkMvQepD5uMxnaWh5q9i_7d7KlyKIpKxzFgeHf6V6jdZyMp4aaYEMmGC6csuZpvHwhuKL8d8D6e11mXGxpChwcNF/s320/1.png" width="320" /></a></div><br /> <o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 6.9pt; margin-left: 25.2pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -21.35pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN">B.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN">RELEVANSI<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 25.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Materi yang
dikembangkan dalam kegiatan belajar Pemanfaatan Penginderaan Jauh dan Sistem
Informasi Geografis Untuk Pengelolaan
Sumberdaya, Mitigasi, Dan Pembangunan Wilayah adalah adalah sallah satu
penunjang penguatan kemampuan profesional guru SMA pada Bidang Geografi .Materi
bahan ajar ini disusun berdasrakan dalam pembelajaran kurikulum 2013. Materi
ini sedikit sulit dipelajari karena bersifat abstrak yang dapat menimbulkan
berbagai pemikiran berbeda bagi siswa. Materi penginderaan jauh merupakan
pemantauan suatu obyek dari jarak jauh dengan tidak melakukn kontak langsung
dengan obyek. Pemberian kesempatan pada siswa untuk mengalami proses imajinatif
merupakan hal penting. Hal itu untuk membelajarkan siswa akan kecakapan
berpikir spasial semakin terasah. Suatu proses pengembangan berfikir tentang
keruangan yang utuh melibatkan aspek
karakter dan keterampilan. Hal itu sesuai pembelajaran geografi dalam kurikulum
2013.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 6.9pt; margin-left: 25.2pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -21.35pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN">C.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN">PEUNJUK BELAJAR<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 25.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Sebelum siswa
menggunakan modul ini, siswa perlu membaca bagian petunjuk ini. Mengapa
diperlukan? Ibarat kamu sedang berlibur
di tempat wisata, kamu tentunya ingin memanfaatkan fasilitas yang ada di tempat
wisata tersebut bukan? Tentunya, agar tujuan tersebut tercapai kamu akan
membaca peta dimana fasilitas itu berada. Begitu juga dengan modul ini. Jika
kamu ingin memperoleh manfaat yang maksimal dari modul ini tentu merupakan
tindakan yang baik jika kamu benar-benar memperhatikan dan memahami bagian
petunjuk penggunaan modul ini.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Baclah dengan
cermat cermat capaian pembelajaran<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Mulailah dengan membaca
materi.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Pahami setiap studi
kasus pemanfaatan penginderaan jauh dan sistem informasi geografis untuk pengelolaan sumberdaya, mitigasi, dan
pembangunan wilayah.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN">4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Jika diperlukan anak-anak boleh mencari informasi tambahan
sesuai dengan materi dalam modul ini <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 6.9pt; margin-left: 25.2pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -21.35pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN">D.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN">SUB CAPAIAN PEMBELAJARAN </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Peserta didik
memiliki pengetahuan tentang sinergi metode penginderaan jauh dan sistem
informasi geografis, aplikasi untuk kajian sumber daya, mitigasi bencana, dan
perencanaan wilayah dan lingkungan. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 35.85pt;"><span lang="IN">Kontribusi teknologi penginderaan
jauh dalam pemetaan dasar dan pemetaan sumberdaya alam / peta-peta tematik,
demikian besar. Diawali dari citra foto ( foto udara konvensional ), foto udara
small format, foto udara digital; citra non foto dari Landsat 1-7, SPOT 2-5,
IKONOS, Quickbird, MODIS-tera, NOAA, dan sebagainya; demikian banyak data /
informasi dapat diperoleh.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span lang="IN">Periksa ilustrasi <o:p></o:p></span></p>
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height:152.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
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o:title="Untitled-TrueColor-28"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="Untitled-TrueColor-28" height="203" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_14" width="486" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 1.17 aplikasi foto udara
untuk pemetaan dasar Rupabumi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="IN"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36.0pt;"><span lang="IN">Aplikasinya dalam pemetaan dasar
Topografi / Rupabumi dan pemetaan tematik ( sumberdaya alam ) sangat luas,
meliputi demikian banyak tema dan melintas berbagai disiplin / bidang ilmu.
Bagi geografi, ilmu yang mengkaji sekian banyak tema dari variasi obyek /
fenomena ruang muka bumi, aplikasi teknologi penginderaan jauh sudah cukup lama
dan cukup luas digunakan.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36.0pt;"><span lang="IN">Bagi peserta didik memahami
berdasarkan ( ideal ) filosofi, kaidah, konsep, teori geografi, citra P.J cukup
baik digunakan sebagai media pembelajaran supaya pemahaman komperhensif di
sekolah. Sifat multispectral, multitemporal, multistage PJ menyediakan media
visual berbagai obyek / fenomena pada berbagai keadaan dalam berbagai skala.
Gambar ilustrasi 1.18a, 1.18b, 1.19, 1.20, 1.21, 1.22, 1.23<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_13" o:spid="_x0000_i1055" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Untitled-TrueColor-22"
style='width:180pt;height:144.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image005.jpg"
o:title="Untitled-TrueColor-22"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="Untitled-TrueColor-22" height="193" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_13" width="240" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN"> </span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_12" o:spid="_x0000_i1054" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Untitled-TrueColor-20"
style='width:180pt;height:139.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image007.jpg"
o:title="Untitled-TrueColor-20"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="Untitled-TrueColor-20" height="186" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_12" width="240" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 75%;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 1.18a. satelit sumberdaya bumi gambar 1.18b. resolusi spasial citra<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 75%;"><span lang="IN"> yang mengorbit tahun
2002-2006 <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 75%;"><span lang="IN"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 75%;"><span lang="IN"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 75%;"><span lang="IN"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_11" o:spid="_x0000_i1053" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Untitled-TrueColor-19"
style='width:279pt;height:138.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image009.jpg"
o:title="Untitled-TrueColor-19"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="Untitled-TrueColor-19" height="185" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_11" width="372" /><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_10" o:spid="_x0000_i1052" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Untitled-TrueColor-18"
style='width:58.5pt;height:107.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image011.jpg"
o:title="Untitled-TrueColor-18"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="Untitled-TrueColor-18" height="143" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_10" width="78" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 1.19 contoh citra
multispectral<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_9" o:spid="_x0000_i1051" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Untitled-TrueColor-17"
style='width:170.25pt;height:2in;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image013.jpg"
o:title="Untitled-TrueColor-17"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="Untitled-TrueColor-17" height="192" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_9" width="227" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN"> </span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_8" o:spid="_x0000_i1050"
type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Untitled-TrueColor-16" style='width:173.25pt;height:2in;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image015.jpg"
o:title="Untitled-TrueColor-16"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="Untitled-TrueColor-16" height="192" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_8" width="231" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 1.20 contoh citra
Landsat Gambar 1.21 contoh citra
Ikonos<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_7" o:spid="_x0000_i1049" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Untitled-TrueColor-14"
style='width:182.25pt;height:129pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image017.jpg"
o:title="Untitled-TrueColor-14"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="Untitled-TrueColor-14" height="172" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image018.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_7" width="243" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN"> </span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_6" o:spid="_x0000_i1048" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Untitled-TrueColor-11"
style='width:190.5pt;height:125.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image019.jpg"
o:title="Untitled-TrueColor-11"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="Untitled-TrueColor-11" height="167" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image020.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_6" width="254" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 1.22. contoh citra
Quickbird Gambar 1.23 contoh citra
hiperspektral<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="IN"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36.0pt;"><span lang="IN">Kemampuan user untuk memaknai
informasi yang terkandung dalam citra PJ mirip kemampuan map reading, meski
obyek atau fenomena pada citra terekam dalam wujud ikonik. Pekerjaan ini
dilakukan melalui kegiatan interpretasi manual dan / atau interpretasi digital.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN"> </span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_5" o:spid="_x0000_i1047" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Untitled-TrueColor-23"
style='width:168pt;height:164.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image021.jpg"
o:title="Untitled-TrueColor-23"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="Untitled-TrueColor-23" height="219" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image022.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_5" width="224" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN"> </span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_4" o:spid="_x0000_i1046" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Untitled-TrueColor-24"
style='width:198.75pt;height:162.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image023.jpg"
o:title="Untitled-TrueColor-24"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="Untitled-TrueColor-24" height="217" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image024.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_4" width="265" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 71%;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 1.24. ilustrasi system Gambar 1.25 a Interpretasi
Digital<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 71%;"><span lang="IN">Perolehan data pengindraan jauh <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 71%;"><span lang="IN"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 71%;"><span lang="IN"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_3" o:spid="_x0000_i1045" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Untitled-TrueColor-24"
style='width:180pt;height:154.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image025.jpg"
o:title="Untitled-TrueColor-24"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="Untitled-TrueColor-24" height="206" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image026.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_3" width="240" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN"> </span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_2" o:spid="_x0000_i1044" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Untitled-TrueColor-25"
style='width:186pt;height:155.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image027.jpg"
o:title="Untitled-TrueColor-25"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="Untitled-TrueColor-25" height="207" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image028.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="248" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 71%;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 1.25a interpretasi digital Gambar 1.25 b, alat yg digunakan dlm<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 71%; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN">
Proses interpretasi digital <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; text-indent: -45.0pt;"><span lang="IN">Catatan : Pada
interpretasi citra digital, didahului pekerjaan <b>koreksi geometrik</b> yang dimaksudkan untuk :<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; text-indent: -45.0pt;"><span lang="IN"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 63.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-no-proof: yes;">v<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Pembetulan / rektifikasi
atau pemulihan / restorasi citra agar koordinat citra sesuai dengan oordinat
geografi.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 63.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-no-proof: yes;">v<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Registrasi / mencocokkan
posisi citra dengan citra lain akan mentransformasikan system koordinat citra
multispectral atau peta multispectral.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 63.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-no-proof: yes;">v<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Transformasi system
koordinat citra (U,V) ke koordinat peta (X,Y).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt;"><span lang="IN"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt;"><b><span lang="IN">SIG Dalam Pemetaan Geografi<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 26.9pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 27.0pt 54.0pt; text-indent: -17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-no-proof: yes;">v<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Keluaran / output utama
SIG adalah peta. Mirip dengan teknologi PJ meskipun dalam SIG adalah Geografis, SIG digunakan
bukan hanya oleh ilmu geografi semata melainkan oleh bidang-bidang ilmu (
kebumian ) lain.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 26.9pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 27.0pt 54.0pt; text-indent: -17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-no-proof: yes;">v<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Pemetaan geografi yang
dimaksudkan disini adalah pemetaan tematik yang merupakan penyajian fakta, peta
analisis, penyajian simpulan, peta rekomendasi dalam kajian geografis.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 26.9pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 27.0pt 54.0pt; text-indent: -17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-no-proof: yes;">v<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Jika SIG dimengerti
sebagai perangkat pengelola basis data ( <i>Data
Base Management System</i> ) yang bertugas mengumpulkan, menyimpan,
menampilkan, dan mengkorelasikan data spasial dari fenomena geografis untuk
dianalisis dan mengkomunikasikan hasil; maka lingkup tugasnya berimpit dengan
kartografi, dan studi geografi pada umumnya.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-no-proof: yes;">-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Tak hendak berkutat persoalan defnisi, realita dihadapan kita
adalah <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-no-proof: yes;">-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Jaman menggambarkan peta secara manual sudah lampau.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-no-proof: yes;">-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Menghitung jarak, luas, analisis tupangsusun peta transparan,
profil sampel, metode grid dengan quadtrue dan raster, juga sudah terhitung
lampau.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%; text-indent: 35.45pt;"><span lang="IN">SIG yang berbasis computer
mengedepankan kemudahan-kemudahan mulai dari input, proses, dan luaran /
output.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%;"><b><span lang="IN">Input (
masukan data ) <o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><span lang="IN">Input data adalah fasilitas dalam
SIG yang digunakan untuk memasukkan dan merubah data dari bentuk data asli ke
bentuk data yang dapat diterima dan dipakai dalam SIG. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%;"><span lang="IN">Input data dalam SIG dapat dilakukan menggunakan 3 cara :<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 18.0pt 107.45pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Penyiaman, yaitu
perubahan data grafis kontinu menjadi data-data grafis diskrit yang terdiri
atas sel penyusun gambar ( pixel ).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 18.0pt 107.45pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Digitasi, yaitu proses
perubahan data grafis analog menjadi data grafis digital<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 18.0pt 107.45pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Tabulasi, yaitu pemasukan
data atribut melalui pembuatan table.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN">Pengolahan data<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN"> </span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%; text-indent: 36.0pt;"><span lang="IN">Subsistem pengolahan data pada
dasarnya dimanfaatkan untuk menimbun dan menarik kembali arsip serta
pengorganisasian data keruangan, pengambilan dan pengolahan. Data yang
tersimpan dalam SIG mepunyai 3 komponen yaitu lokasi geografis, atribut, serta
waktu. Dalam pengoalah data, juga dapat dilakukan analisis untuk kebutuhan
geografi seperti tumpangsusun peta ( lihat gambar 1.6 ). Peta tersebut
merupakan hasil tmpang susun beberapa peta seperti peta penggunaan lahan, peta
tanah, dan lain-lain. Analisis lain yang dapat dilakukan oleh SIG adalah
penentuan black spot daerah rawan kecelakaan disuatu daerah perhatikan gambar
1.26<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%; text-align: center;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_1"
o:spid="_x0000_i1043" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="10_d" style='width:291.75pt;
height:171pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
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<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 1.26. contoh peta hasil
analisis SIG<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="IN"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN">Selain
contoh analisis diatas, ada beberapa analisis SIG antara lain :<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 70%; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 107.4pt; text-indent: -98.35pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Penyuntingan untuk pemutakhiran data.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 70%; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 107.4pt; text-indent: -98.35pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Interpolasi spasial.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 70%; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 107.4pt; text-indent: -98.35pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Tumpangsusun peta.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 70%; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 107.45pt; text-indent: -98.45pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Analisis jaringan.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 70%; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 107.45pt; text-indent: -98.45pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Buffering.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 70%; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 107.45pt; text-indent: -98.45pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN">6)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Klasifikasi.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 70%; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 107.45pt; text-indent: -98.45pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN">7)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">3D analisis.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 70%; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt 107.45pt; text-indent: -98.45pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN">8)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Digital image processing.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36.0pt;"><span lang="IN">Perhatikan gambar 1.27 sebagai salah satu hasil analisis
SIG menggunakan metode 3D analissi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36.0pt;"><span lang="IN"> </span></p>
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<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 1.27 hasil analisis SIG
menggunakan 3D analisis<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN">Output ( keluaran )<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36.0pt;"><span lang="IN">Fungsi subsistem analisis SIG
adalah untuk menayangkan informasi maupun
hasil analisis geografis secara kualitatif maupun kuntitatif. Keluaran
SIG dapat berupa <i>softcopy</i> maupun <i>hardcopy. </i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="IN">Ujung-ujung
kajian geografi adalah peta. geografi bekerja menggunakan peta hasil kerja
geografi adalah peta. karena peta adalah
persentasi visual, maka wajah peta harus menarik, enak dipandang, bersih, mudah
dimengerti oleh pengguna peta</span> terutama
peserta didik (siswa)</i></b><b><i><span lang="IN">. <o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 32.15pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 12.4pt; margin-left: 25.2pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -21.35pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN">E.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN">URAIAN MATERI :
Pemanfaatan Penginderaan Jauh Dan Sistem Informasi Geografis Untuk Kajian
Lingkungan Dan Pembangunan Wilayah </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 12.4pt; margin-left: 8.15pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">1.</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></b><b><span lang="IN">Sinergi Penginderaan Jauh dan Sistem Informasi
Geografis </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Sejak lahir
manusia memahami dan mengenal lingkungan sekitarnya dengan pandangan mata.
Manusia mengenal adanya berbagai obyek dengan melakukan pengamatan. Berbagai
kejadian alam yang terjadi teramati dalam batas-batas pandangan visualnya.
Pengenalan lingkungan melalui amatan-amatan visual ini telah berlangsung
berabad-abad. Metode pengenalan terhadap lingkungan berdasar pada amatan visual
tentu memiliki keterbatasan-keterbatasan terutama terkait dengan luas area
amatannya. Kejadian-kejadian seperti perubahan luas tutupan vegetasi, perubahan
luas penggurunan, perubahan tutupan es, ataupun penggundulan hutan tidak
teramati dengan baik melalui pengamatan secara langsung. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Pada awal kemunculannya,
penginderaan jauh muncul dengan data-data analog yang bersifat lokal seperti
foto-foto udara. Data ini membuka wawasan tentang pentingnya informasi spasial
yang seakurat mungkin dengan kondisi senyatanya. Informasi melalui udara ini
berkembang dengan dukungan dari perkembangan teknologi dirgantara seperti
pesawat terbang, roket, dan satelit. Perkembangan teknologi penginderaan jauh
selanjutnya melahirkan data-data citra dalam berbagai tingkat resolusi spasial,
spektral, radiometrik dan temporal. Potensi aplikasi dari data-data citra
penginderaan jauh itu tidak terbendung pada berbagai bidang. Walaupun tentu
saja bukan berarti penginderaan jauh tidak memiliki kekurangan, namun data
penginderaan jauh mampu memberikan informasi spasial yang luas. Melalui
data-data penginderaan jauh multi temporal dapat dihasilkan pembandingan
informasi spasial dari satu waktu dengan waktu yang lain. Data penginderaan
jauh seperti foto udara dan citra satelit dapat meningkatkan akurasi dan
kecepatan analisa terhadap berbagai. Penginderaan jauh pada saat ini bukan
hanya sekedar suatu fenomena teknis, tetapi telah berkembang menjadi suatu
bagian penting dalam memahami berbagai permasalahan perubahan lingkungan
(Adams, 2006). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Penginderaan
jauh modern diawali dengan diluncurkannya satelit Landsat Multispectral Scanner
System (MSS) pada tahun 1972 (Schowengerdt, 2007). Satelit ini memiliki empat
saluran dengan lebar spektral sekitar 100 nm, dan resolusi spasial 80 meter.
Peluncuran satelit ini mengawali sistem penginderaan jauh sistem satelit
digital. Perkembangan selanjutnya terjadi peningkatan yang signifikan terutama
dalam pemotongan rentang spektral untuk setiap saluran citra. Satelit
hyperspectral seperti MODIS memiliki jumlah saluran sebanyak 36 band. Dengan
kemampuannya tersebut, satelit dapat diaplikasikan dalam banyak hal. Kemampuan
satelit ini banyak dimanfaatkan dalam berbagai hal yang bersifat spasial. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Sebagian
besar dari aplikasi data penginderaan jauh dimanfaatkan untuk pengelolaan
sumberdaya. Perkembangan teknologi satelit berresolusi tinggi selanjutnya
memungkinkan pengenalan sifat fisik dan bentuk obyek dipermukaan bumi secara
individual juga dapat dilakukan. Satelit penginderaan jauh yang banyak
dimanfaatkan selama ini merupakan satelit yang menggunakan sistem optis.
Penginderaan jauh sistem optis ini memanfaatkan spektrum tampak hingga infra
merah (Liang, 2004). Rentang gelombang elektromagnetik yang lebih luas dalam
penginderaan jauh meliputi gelombang pendek mikro hingga spektrum yang lebih
pendek seperti gelombang infra merah, gelombang tampak, dan gelombang ultra
violet (Elachi, 2006). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Pengolahan
data-data citra penginderaan jauh dalam berbagai aplikasi tersebut memanfaatkan
berbagai perangkat lunak sistem informasi geografis. Sistem informasi geografis
ini memberikan berbagai teknik pengolahan dan analisis data spasial termasuk data-data
penginderaan jauh. Teknik overlay atau tumpang susun data spasial adalah teknik
yang sangat sering diaplikasikan dalam kajian lingkungan. Teknik overlay banyak
diaplikasikan dalam analisis yang mendasarkan pada data vektor. Teknik overlay
pada data raster dilakukan dengan menggunakan proses aritmetik matematis.
Proses aritmetik matematis dalam kajian tersebut dimanfaatkan sebagai kesamaan
dengan proses overlay dalam data vektor. Proses overlay dan aritmetik matematis
ini ditujukan untuk menghasilkan data spasial baru hasil paduan dari beberapa
dat<b>a</b> spasial masukan. Teknik
pemilihan fitur diaplikasikan untuk tujuan klasifikasi spasial berdasar
parameter tertentu seperti dilakukan oleh Solomon dan Quiel (2008), Croskrey
dan Groves (2008). Teknik pemilihan fitur pada umumnya dilakukan sebagai
klasifikasi awal pada layer tunggal. Proses ini dilakukan untuk memberikan
nilai bobot dari masing-masing fitur. Teknik ini banyak dilakukan dalam
analisis berbasis data vektor. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Penginderaan
jauh dan sistem informasi geografis pada akhirnya merupakan satu metode yang
sering digunakan secara bersama-sama. Kemampuan yang dimiliki oleh penginderaan
jauh dan sistem informasi geografis saling mengisi dan melengkapi ketika
digunakan secara bersama-sama. Sinergi dari penginderaan jauh dan sistem
informasi geografis terbukti memberikan hasil yang baik untuk pemecahan
permasalahan yang berkaitan dengan data spasial. Penginderaan jauh memiliki
kelebihan dalam penyediaan data-data citra dengan berbagai resolusi. Sementara
itu sistem informasi geografis memiliki kekuatan dalam pengolahan data-data
spasial baik vektor maupun raster. Sinergi kedua metode ini melahirkan wawasan
baru dalam pengembangan metode ilmiah khususnya dalam bidang ilmu kebumian.
Perkembangan metodologi penginderaan jauh dan SIG saat ini bahkan telah
diaplikasikan dalam kajian-kajian ilmu sosial dan kesehatan. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Kemampuan
yang dimiliki oleh penginderaan jauh dan sistem informasi geografis tersebut
mampu menjadi satu kekuatan yang saling bersinergi. Hingga saat ini
penginderaan jauh telah diaplikasikan untuk keperluan pengelolaan lingkungan,
ekologi, degradasi lahan, bencana alam, hingga perubahan iklim (Horning, 2004).
Xiao dkk (2009) menyatakan bahwa teknologi penginderaan jauh dan sistem
informasi geografis dapat digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi pola bentang lahan
dan menganalisis proses-proses ekologis yang terjadi pada berbagai pola bentang
lahan karst tersebut. Cakupan perekaman yang luas, banyaknya saluran dan
periode ulang perekaman yang cepat memungkinkan proses monitoring terhadap
lingkungan karst secara cepat, akurat, berkesinambungan dan relatif murah
dibandingkan metode lain (Hung dkk, 2005; Newman dkk, 2011). Uraian berikut
pada modul ini akan memberikan jabaran tentang pemanfaatan penginderaan jauh dan
SIG untuk berbagai kajian. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 32.15pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 6.75pt; margin-left: 4.35pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">2.</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></b><b><span lang="IN">Pemanfaatan PJ dan SIG untuk Pengelolaan Sumber Daya </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 12.4pt; margin-left: 4.35pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">a.</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></b><b><span lang="IN">PJ dan SIG untuk analisis sumber daya lahan </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.5pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Anak-anak yang saya sayangi, pada
bagian ini akan dicontohkan pemanfaatan penginderaan jauh dan sistem informasi
geografis untuk analisis potensi sumber daya lahan. Pemahaman tentang lahan di
sekitar kita tentu sangat penting untuk pemeliharaan lingkungan dan pembangunan
wilayah tersebut. Analisis potensi sumber daya lahan telah banyak dilakukan
oleh para peneliti dan memberikan informasi yang sangat bermanfaat. Beberapa
hasil kajian tentang sumberdaya lahan ini diantaranya adalah oleh Golmehr
(2009), Teotia dkk (2010), Boori dan Vozenilek (2014), Mosleh dkk (2015),
Mansaray dkk (2017), dan Somvanshi dkk (2018).
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.6pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Kajian terkait sumber daya lahan
banyak membicarakan tentang potensi lahan untuk keperluan tertentu seperti
pengembangan potensi lahan dan budidaya, pengembangan wilayah, dan pemeliharaan
lingkungan. Pendekatan yang dilakukan adalah dengan mengkaji berbagai faktor
pendukung dan pembatas lahan untuk tujuan tertentu tersebut dengan mendasar
pada data penginderaan jauh. Faktor pendukung dan pembatas yang diturunkan dari
data penginderaan jauh adalah faktor yang bersifat karakteristik fisik lahan
seperti kondisi morfologi, jaringan drainase alamiah, aksesibilitas, dan
tutupan / penggunaan lahan yang ada saat itu. Faktor lain yang bersifat non
fisik dapat diolah dengan menggunakan perangkat sistem informasi geografis.
Kesimpulan yang dihasilkan secara umum berupa rekomendasi ataupun
skenario-skenario manajemen lahan tersebut. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Prosedur yang dilakukan
untuk mendapatkan data sumberdaya lahan dari data penginderaan jauh dapat
dilihat pada metodologi yang dilakukan oleh peneliti yang disebutkan di atas.
Kajian-kajian yang dilakukan oleh peneliti tersebut seluruhnya mendasarkan pada
data penginderaan jauh seperti data Landsat 7 ETM, SPOT, dan Sentinel. Data
penginderaan jauh diturunkan menjadi informasi tutupan vegetasi yang kemudian
didetilkan hingga jenis tanaman pertanian tertentu. Panjang gelombang yang
banyak dimanfaatkan adalah saluran merah dan inframerah, mengingat saluran ini
memiliki rentang nilai pantulan yang berbeda jauh. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.5pt;"><span lang="IN">Karakteristik spektral ini sangat
bermanfaat untuk mengkaji kondisi tutupan dan pengunaan lahan dari sebuah data
citra penginderaan jauh. Aplikasi sering dilakukan dalam bentuk analisis
terhadap citra indeks vegetasi. Oleh karena itu, citra indeks vegetasi dalam
berbagai varian formulasinya sering diaplikasikan untuk mendapatkan informasi untuk
tujuan-tujuan ini. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.5pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Analisis banyak dilakukan melalui
prosedur digital. Analisis digital dilakukan dengan memanfaatkan perangkat
lunak pengolah citra dan sistem informasi geografis. Observasi lapangan
dilakukan untuk pengambilan sampel yang akan dipakai dalam pembentukan model
ataupun pengujian akurasi hasil klasifikasi. Berikut adalah contoh langka
prosedural pengolahan data penginderaan jauh untuk analisis sumber daya lahan
yang dilakukan oleh Teotia dkk (2010). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.05pt;"><span lang="IN">Gambar berikut adalah
contoh satu hasil pengolahan citra untuk analisis sumber daya lahan yang
dilakukan oleh Boori dan Vozenilek (2014). Prosedur yang dilakukan hampir
serupa dengan yang dilakukan oleh Teotia dkk (2010). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 9.2pt 80pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_109487" o:spid="_x0000_i1041" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:243.75pt;
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<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image038.png"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="339" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image039.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_109487" width="325" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin: 0cm -0.75pt 5.75pt 3.6pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 101%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar 2. Pola perubahan penutup lahan hasil pengolahan data
citra penginderaan jauh. Sumber : Boorio dan Vozenilek (2014) </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Citra tersebut
menunjukkan pola perubahan penutup lahan di wilayah penelitian yang dilakukan
oleh Boori dan Vozenilek (2014) dengan mendasarkan pada citra multi temporal.
Ananilis dilakukan dengan menggunakan metode klasifikasi. Hasil penelitian
menunjukkan bahwa beberapa area menunjukkan penutup lahan yang tetap dan
beberapa lokasi lain menunjukkan adanya dinamika perubahan penutup lahan.
Berdasar citra tersebut dapat diidentifikasi lokasi, pola persebaran, dan pola
perubahan penutup lahan antar waktu. Informasi ini menjadi dasar pengelolaan
lahan di wilayah tersebut. Penambahan informasi non fisik pada data
penginderaan jauh tersebut memberikan petunjuk penyebab dari perubahan yang
terjadi. Temuan yang dihasilkan dalam penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa
pertumbuhan jumlah penduduk merupakan pemicu utama meningkatnya kebutuhan
lahan. Temuan ini dihasilkan setelah dilakukan analisis dengan menambahkan data
pertumbuhan penduduk di wilayah penelitian. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 12.4pt; margin-left: 4.35pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">b.</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></b><b><span lang="IN">PJ dan SIG untuk analisis sumber daya air </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Anak-anak
yang saya sayangi, penelitian terkait sumber daya air berbasis data
penginderaan jauh sering ditujukan untuk mengidentifikasi area imbuhan (<i>recharge</i>) dan area pengatus (<i>discharge</i>). Hingga saat ini banyak
terdapat penelitian terkait sumber daya air dengan mengaplikasikan data
penginderaan jauh dan sistem informasi geografis. Aplikasi penginderaan jauh
dan sistem informasi geografis yang berkaitan dengan sumber daya air
diantaranya dilakukan oleh Leblanc dkk (2003) dan Solomon dan Quiel
(2008). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 17.95pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Leblanc dkk (2003) membangun
model spasial untuk mengidentifikasi area masukan (recharge) dan keluaran
(discharge) air tanah. Data yang digunakan adalah peta-peta tematik dan data
penginderaan jauh. Data penginderaan jauh yang digunakan adalah data citra
AVHRR/LAC dan citra thermal Meteosat. Kedua data penginderaan jauh ini
digunakan untuk merekam pancaran termal dari lingkungan air dan tidak berair. <b>Dasar asumsi yang digunakan adalah terdapat
perbedaan nilai termal antara tubuh air dengan perairan basah di sekitarnya</b>.
Hasil observasi menunjukkan adanya perbedaan secara nyata antara area yang
berair dengan tidak berair. Teknik digitasi digunakan untuk pembentukan peta
digital dari peta-peta analog melalui perangkat SIG. Digitasi dilakukan
menggunakan metode digitasi <i>onscreen</i>.
Model memanfaatkan metode perbandingan data antar waktu untuk mengetahui
fluktuasi dari air permukaan. Analisis ini menunjukkan area tutupan air seperti
pada Gambar 3 berikut. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.3pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: .3pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: right; text-indent: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_10077" o:spid="_x0000_i1040" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:397.5pt;
height:156pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image040.jpg"
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="208" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image041.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_10077" width="530" /><!--[endif]--></span> <span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin: 0cm -0.75pt 0.0001pt 26.4pt; text-indent: -10.3pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 101%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar 3. Rona gelap
ditunjukkan area tubuh air dan area perairan bervegetasi pada saluran thermal
citra AVHRR/LAC dan Meteosat (sumber : Leblanc dkk, 2003) </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.6pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 3. menunjukkan sebaran
area bertutupan air dan perairan bervegetasi. Area tubuh air dan area perairan
bervegetasi nampak lebih gelap dibandingkan area lahan kering. Area yang cerah
adalah area lahan kering diluar tubuh air. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa
model ini mampu memperjelas lokasi masukan (recharge) dan keluaran (discharge)
air tanah pada basin tersebut. Lokasi recharge ditunjukkan dengan area yang
secara temporal selalu gelap. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.5pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Kajian lain terkait sumber daya
air adalah oleh Solomon dan Quiel (2008). Peneliti ini melakukan kajian terkait
air tanah karst dengan memanfaatkan penginderaan jauh, sistem informasi
geografis dan observasi lapangan. Analisis didasarkan pada data-data raster
yang berasal dari data penginderaan jauh, DEM, dan data lapangan. Data
penginderaan jauh sebagai data dasar yang digunakan adalah citra mutispektral
Landsat TM dan SPOT 5. Citra ini digunakan untuk pemetaan litologi dan
kelurusan. Dasar asumsi yang digunakan untuk penentuan area potensi imbuhan dan
pengatusan adalah bahwa area tersebut muncul pada lokasi sesar, atau pada area
pertemuan suatu formasi batuan. Area ini dapat diidentifikasi melalui data
penginderaan jauh baik melalui analisis visual ataupun digital. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 18.1pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Berdasar asumsi tersebut, maka
ide pokok dari prosedur yang dilakukan dalam penelitian ini adalah memperoleh
informasi batuan dan visualisasi kelurusan sebagai representasi area sesar
melalui data penginderaan jauh. Fitur batuan diarea penelitan dianalisis
melalui prosedur digital berbantuan perangkat lunak pengolah citra dan GIS.
Prosedur PCA diaplikasikan untuk mereduksi dimensionalitas dan meningkatkan
ketajaman informasi dari data citra Landsat TM. PCA mengurangi redudansi
informasi dari data yang dapat mengakibatkan kesalahan interpretasi.
Selanjutnya penajaman visualisasi data citra dilakukan dengan perentangan
kontras model Gaussian. Model penajaman ini digunakan untuk meningkatkan
kontras pada visualisasi citra tersebut. Peta litologi hasil interpretasi dari
citra tersebut selanjutnya dilengkapi dengan data observasi lapangan dan
dimasukkan pada sistem informasi geografis. Informasi dari observasi lapangan
digunakan untuk memperbaiki kesalahan interpretasi batuan yang telah dilakukan
pada tahapan sebelumnya. Hasil dari interpetasi fitur batuan menghasilkan peta
sebaran batuan diarea penelitian. Peta tersebut nampak seperti pada Gambar 4
berikut. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.15pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 64.25pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: right; text-indent: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: .5pt; position: relative; top: -.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_109674"
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<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar 4. Hasil interpretasi batuan
berdasar data citra Landsat TM. </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: 11.75pt; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">(Sumber : Solomon dan Quiel, 2008) </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.5pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 4. merupakan hasil
interpretasi terhadap data citra penginderaan jauh yang memberikan informasi
variasi jenis batuan. Interpretasi citra penginderaan jauh tersebut berhasil
mempetakan kondisi batuan di daerah penelitian. Kondisi batuan ini dapat petakan
dengan akurasi yang tinggi. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.1pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Kelurusan merupakan fenomena yang
sering terdapat dipermukaan bumi. Kelurusan dapat terbentuk oleh satu fenomena
budaya seperti jalan, saluran air, rel, dan lain-lain. Kelurusan juga dapat
merupakan representasi fenomena alamiah. Sebagai contoh kelurusan ini adalah
bidang sesar atau lipatan. Kelurusan yang diinginkan dalam penelitian ini
adalah kelurusan yang diakibatkan oleh keberadaan fenomena alam seperti sesar
atau lipatan ini. Oleh karena itu, kelurusan diinterpretasi secara visual dari
citra Landsat dan DEM. Kelurusan diturunkan dengan menggunakan cara digitasi
interaktif melalui layar komputer berbantuan perangkat lunak SIG. Interpretasi
kelurusan menghasilkan peta kelurusan seperti pada Gambar 5. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.3pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
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<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: 11.9pt; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar 5. Peta kelurusan berdasar citra PJ. Sumber : Solomon
dan Quiel (2008) </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 5
merupakan contoh hasil interpretasi kelurusan berdasar data citra penginderaan
jauh. Berdasar pada peta kelurusan tersebut dapat diketahui arah dan panjang
rata-rata kelurusan. Bentukan struktural dihasilkan dari observasi lapangan
dengan menggunakan kompas. Data-data tersebut dikelompokkan berdasar jenis
batuan yang ada dan dicatat posisi geografisnya. Analisis dilanjutkan dengan
membentuk model spasial dengan mendasarkan pada teknik pembobotan atau
harkat. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Kajian ini menunjukkan
bahwa keberadaan air tanah berkaitan dengan adanya kelurusan yang besar dan
fitur-fitur struktural. Hasil analisis lokasi mata air yang dioverlay dengan
peta kelurusan menunjukkan bahwa kelurusan dengan arah utaraselatan berasosiasi
dengan tingginya potensi air tanah dan dapat digunakan sebagai target utama
dalam eksplorasi air tanah di lokasi penelitian ini. Berdasar temuantemuan ini,
disimpulkan bahwa pemanfaatan data penginderaan jauh, SIG dan observasi lapangan
ini merupakan metode yang berdaya guna untuk studi eksplorasi air tanah dengan
akurasi yang dapat diterima. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 12.4pt; margin-left: 4.35pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">c.</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></b><b><span lang="IN">PJ dan SIG untuk analisis sumber daya mineral </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.6pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Anak-anak yang saya sayangi,
penginderaan jauh dan sistem informasi geografis juga telah diaplikasikan
sebagai pendekatan dalam analisis sumberdaya mineral. Analisis ditujukan untuk
identifikasi sebaran dan potensi mineral pada suatu wilayah. Beberapa contoh
penelitian terkait sumber daya mineral ini adalah seperti dilakukan oleh Liu
dkk (2013) Nasir dan Rajendran (2017), dan Julzarika (2018). Data yang umum
digunakan adalah data citra satelit optik seperti Landsat, Aster, dan SPOT,
serta satelit DEM seperti GDEM ASTER dan SRTM. Selain itu juga digunakan data
dari satelit geodetik seperti untuk perolehan informasi gaya berat dan
magnetik. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.5pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Parameter yang digunakan sebagai
dasar kajian adalah sifat spektral mineral, sifat magnetik, dan karakteristik
geologisnya. Sifat spektral mineral dan lingkungan geologi dapat diturunkan
citra optik. Sifat spektral mineral dapat dianalisis melalui model matematis
menjadi suatu citra indeks. Sementara itu kondisi geologi dapat dianalisis
melalui analisis digital dan visual. Sedangkan sifat magenik diturunkan dari
data citra satelit geodetik. Parameter yang dapat dimanfaatkan diantaranya
adalah gaya berat dan medan magnet. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.6pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Sifat spektral mineral yang
digunakan adalah perbedaan serapan gelombang elektromagnetik pada beberapa
rentang panjang gelombang. Setiap mineral memiliki sifat serapan yang berbeda
terhadap suatu rentang panjang gelombang. Sebagai contoh, keberadaan mineral
besi pada suatu lapukan batuan mengakibatkan serapan gelombang elektromagnetik
pada sekitar 0.45 μm, 1.0–1.1 μm, 1.8–1.9 μm, and 2.2–2.3 μm, tergantung pada
kondisi lingkungannya (Nasir dan Rajendran, 2017). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Lingkungan geologi dapat
digunakan sebagai dasar interpretasi keberadaan mineral. Hal ini dikarenakan
proses pembentukan mineral berkaitan dengan proses magmatik. Proses ini secara
simultan membentuk asosiasi lingkungan geologis dengan mineral-mineral penyusun
dan turunannya. Sebagai contoh, mineral logam pada umumnya berkaitan dengan
batuan vulkanik. Tekanan dan suhu selanjutnya menghasilkan alterasi mineral
dalam bentuk dan struktur yang berbeda. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.9pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Sifat magnetik memberikan gambaran keberadaan mineral
tertentu pada suatu wilayah. Seperti pada sifat spektral mineral, masing-masing
mineral memiliki sifat magnetik yang khas, sehingga sifat ini dapat digunakan
sebagai penciri keberadaan suatu mineral. Namun demikian, keberadaan mineral
sering tidak berdiri sendiri. Mineral sering berada pada suatu senyawa lain,
sehingga untuk menganalisis keberadaannya harus diasosiasikan dengan keberadaan
mineral lainnya. Asosiasi antara mineral tembaga dan emas adalah contoh dari
kasus ini. Mineral tembaga itu sendiri sering tidak berdiri sendiri di alam,
melainkan sering terkandung di dalam pirit atau <i>chalcopyrite </i>(CuFeS2), <i>copper
glance </i>atau <i>chalcolite </i>(Cu2S), <i>cuprite </i>(Cu2O), <i>malaconite </i>(CuO) dan <i>malachite
</i>(Cu2(OH)2CO3) (Julzarika, 2018). Gambar berikut adalah contoh diagram alir
yang dilakukan oleh Julzarika (2018) untuk membuat model identifikasi mineral
tembaga menggunakan pendekatan penginderaan jauh dan SIG. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 15.9pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: right; text-indent: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;">PJ </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar 6. Diagram alir identifikasi
mineral tembaga. Sumber : Julzarika (2018) </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Diagram alir tersebut menunjukkan
bahwa data dasar yang digunakan dalam pembuatan model identifikasi mineral
tembaga oleh Julzarika (2018) adalah didasarkan pada data citra Landsat, ALOS
Palsar, SRTM, XSAR dan Geodetik. Citra Landsat digunakan sebagai dasar
identifikasi lokasi tambang, kondisi tutupan lahan, dan identifikasi alterasi
hidrotermal. Citra ALOS Palsar digunakan untuk menurunkan informasi formasi
geologi. Data ini bersama dengan citra SRTM dimanfaatkan untuk menghasilkan DEM
yang selanjutnya digunakan untuk menghasilkan infromasi struktur geologi. Citra
Geodetik dimanfaatkan untuk menghasilkan informasi medan magnet, geodinamika,
densitas, dan gaya berat. Hasil identifikasi keberadaan mineral tembaga di NTB
berdasar model yang dihasilkan dalam penelitian ini adalah seperti pada Gambar
7 berikut. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar 7. Hasil identifikasi lokasi
keberadaan mineral tembaga di NTB. </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: 12.15pt; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar dicuplik dari : Julzarika (2018) </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Keberadaan
lokasi mineral tembaga di NTB dapat diidentifikasi menggunakan data
penginderaan jauh melalui model Julzarika (2018) ini. Model dibentuk dari data
citra suatu lokasi area tambang yang sudah ada. Hal ini dimaksudkan untuk
mendapatkan nilai-nilai spektral yang pasti dari keberadaan mineral tembaga
tersebut. Model yang dihasilkan ini selanjutnya diaplikasikan pada tempat lain
yang belum ada ekplorasi tambang mineral tembaga. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 32.15pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 6.75pt; margin-left: 4.35pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">3.</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></b><b><span lang="IN">Pemanfaatan PJ dan SIG untuk Mitigasi Bencana </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 12.4pt; margin-left: 4.35pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">a.</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></b><b><span lang="IN">PJ dan SIG untuk mitigasi bencana banjir </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Anak-anak
yang saya sayangi, seperti telah kita ketahui bersama bahwa banjir adalah
bencana yang sering terjadi dan memberikan dampak yang dapat merusak pada
kehidupan manusia ataupun lingkungan. Potensi banjir akan terus meningkat sejalan
dengan semakin sempitnya lahan penyerap air permukaan dan memburuknya sistem
drainase. Perubahan iklim yang terjadi secara global meningkatkan potensi
terhadap kejadian banjir. Sistem informasi geografis dan data penginderaan jauh
banyak dimanfaatkan dalam kajian mitigasi bencana banjir. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.5pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Ouma dan Tateishi (2014)
menggunakan sistem informasi geografis mengkaji banjir perkotaan dengan dasar
kondisi topografi dan morfometri lahan perkotaan. Kondisi tersebut diurai
menjadi parameter elevasi, kemiringan lereng (slope), tanah, curah hujan,
jaringan drainase, dan penggunaan lahan. Data-data tersebut selanjutnya oleh
Ouma dan Tateishi (2014) dianalisis melalui prosedur AHP menggunakan perangkat
sistem informasi geografis. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: 11.75pt; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Sumber : Ouma dan Tateishi (2014) </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: 6.4pt; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: .5pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: right;"><span lang="IN">Keterkaitan parameter
dalam kajian ini terkait kriteria fisik dan sosio ekonomis ditunjukkan seperti
pada Gambar 8. Parameter tersebut dinilai sebagai parameter yang penting dan
memberikan pengaruh terhadap kejadian banjir perkotaan. Data parameter elevasi,
slope dan jaringan drainase diturunkan dari data DEM. Perkembangan pada saat
ini, model elevasi digital dapat diturunkan dari data penginderaan jauh seperti
citra satelit ASTER dan SRTM. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Elevasi dan
slope memiliki peran yang penting terhadap kejadian banjir. Genangan akan
terjadi pada titik-titik yang memiliki elevasi rendah. Informasi lokasi yang
memiliki elevasi rendah dapat diidentifikasi melalui data model elevasi digital
(DEM). Beda tinggi tempat menghasilkan informasi kekasaran permukaan lahan.
Lahan yang memiliki kekasaran tinggi lebih memungkinkan terjadinya infiltrasi
dibandingkan permukaan yang halus. Infiltrasi mengurangi potensi jumlah air
yang jatuh menjadi air larian permukaan lahan.
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Kemiringan
lereng atau slope berperan terhadap kontrol kecepatan air larian permukaan,
arah larian, dan jumlah air larian permukaan dan bawah permukaan yang sampai ke
lokasi banjir. Air secara gravitasional akan bergerak ke tempat yang lebih rendah
dengan kecepatan yang dipengaruhi oleh besar kecilnya kemiringan lereng.
Kemiringan lereng yang landai merupakan kondisi yang lebih peka terhadap
banjir. Kecepatan air mengalir pada permukaan dengan kemiringan lereng yang
rendah akan relatif lambat, sehingga kecepatan pengatusan tempat tersebut
menjadi rendah. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Jenis tanah
memiliki peran yang besar terhadap kemampuan infiltrasi. Tanah pasir memiliki
kemampuan infiltrasi yang tinggi dibandingkan dengan tanah lempung. Tanah pasir
memiliki rongga antar butir yang lebih besar. Rongga ini membentuk ruang yang
dapat digunakan sebagai jalur penyerapan air ke dalam tanah. Seperti disebutkan
di muka, bahwa infiltrasi akan mengurangi jumlah air larian permukaan yang akan
menjadi banjir. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Curah hujan merupakan
faktor utama penyebab banjir. Curah hujan dengan intensitas yang tinggi akan
secara langsung memicu terjadinya banjir. Curah hujan dengan intensitas tinggi
dan durasi yang lama dapat mengakibatkan peningkatan jumlah air di permukaan.
Pada saat ini, sejalan dengan fenomena perubahan iklim sering terjadi hujan
dengan intensitas yang tinggi. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Kepadatan
jaringan drainase memberikan peran terhadap tingkat erosi permukaan pada lahan.
Dengan demikian semakin tinggi tingkat kepadatan drainase akan memberikan
potensi yang lebih tinggi terhadap hilangnya tanah permukaan. Kehilangan tanah
permukaan akan mengurangi kemampuan infitrasi, terutama jika telah mencapai
lapisan batuan dasar. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Penggunaan
lahan dan penutup lahan juga merupakan satu kontrol terhadap stabilitas tanah
dan infiltrasi. Penutupan vegetasi memiliki kemampuan yang lebih besar dalam
menahan air permukaan dan meningkatkan infiltrasi dibandingkan lahan dengan
terbangun. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin: 0cm -0.75pt 12.1pt 3.6pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 101%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar 9. Peta kerentanan banjir hasil analisis AHP. Sumber :
Ouma dan Tateishi (2014) </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Hasil
perhitungan dan analisis menggunakan AHP dan sistem informasi geografis
menunjukkan sebaran area kerentanan dan risiko bencana banjir dengan akurasi
yang tinggi. Perpaduan metode ini menghasilkan informasi potensi banjir dengan
cepat dan mendekati fakta yang sebenarnya. Berdasar kondisi ini, perpaduan
metode AHP dalam sistem informasi geografis sangat berpotensi untuk kajian
mitigasi bencana banjir. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 32.15pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 12.4pt; margin-left: 8.15pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">b.</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></b><b><span lang="IN">PJ dan SIG untuk mitigasi bencana kekeringan </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.5pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Kekeringan merupakan satu bencana
yang disebabkan oleh kurangnya curah hujan dari keadaan normal. Curah hujan
dalam keadaan ini tidak mampu memenuhi kebutuhan manusia dan lingkungan.
Pemanfaatan penginderaan jauh dan SIG untuk kajian kekeringan telah banyak
dilakukan dengan berbagai metode. Data penginderaan jauh dan SIG terbukti dapat
digunakan dengan baik dan memberikan banyak kemudahan untuk kajian kekeringan
ini. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.5pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Penelitian kekeringan dengan
berbasis data penginderaan jauh ini diantaranya dilakukan oleh Al-Tamimi dkk
(2012). Ide pokok dalam mengidentifikasi kekeringan dalam penelitian ini adalah
dengan mengidentifikasi penyimpangan nilai indeks vegetasi multi waktu sebagai
representasi kesehatan tanaman. Penelitian ini mengidentifikasi dua macam
fenomena kekeringan, yaitu kekeringan meteorologis dan kekeringan pertanian. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.2pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Data citra pokok yang digunakan
adalah citra AVHRR hasil perekaman selama musim penghujan. Citra selanjutnya
ini diturunkan menjadi beberapa citra NDVI . Nilai spektral indeks vegetasi
menjadi dasar perhitungan fluktuasi kondisi vegetasi antar waktu. Anomali nilai
NDVI antar waktu digunakan sebagai dasar identifikasi penyimpangan kondisi
tutupan vegetasi. Kondisi dinyatakan kekeringan pada saat dimana terjadi
anomali nilai NDVI dari nilai rerata NDVI antar waktu. Formulasi nilai anomali
NDVI adalah sebagai berikut. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN">Keterangan
: <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN">NDVI
<sub>anomali </sub> : nilai anomali NDVI
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN">NDVI
<sub>max </sub>: nilai maksimal
rerata NDVI <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.75pt;"><span lang="IN">NDVI <sub>max</sub> :
nilai NDVI maksimal <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Anomali nilai indeks NDVI
ini digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi area kekeringan pertanian. Hasil analisis
anomali indeks NDVI ini dipetakan menggunakan perangkat lunak SIG. Peta indeks
kekeringan pertanian hasil analisis dari anomali nilai indeks vegetasi adalah
seperti pada Gambar 10. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar 10. Indeks kekeringan pertanian
berdasar anomali indeks vegetasi. </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: 11.9pt; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Sumber: Al-Tamimi dkk (2012) </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 10.
tersebut menunjukkan sebaran anomali indeks vegetatif yang diidentifikasi
sebagai area kekeringan pertanian. Secara spasial terdapat satu pola persebaran
tingkat kekeringan pertanian di wilayah penelitian. Area dengan tingkat
kekeringan pertanian ekstrim tersebar di bagian utara. Tingkat kekeringan
cenderung menurun ke arah selatan dan terjadi peningkatan di bagian ujung
tenggara wilayah penelitian ini. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Data curah
hujan dari stasiun meteorologi digunakan untuk menghitung indeks curah hujan
menggunakan indek SPI (Standardized Precipitation Index). Peta indeks
kekeringan meteorologi hasil perhitungan nilai indeks SPI adalah seperti pada
Gambar 11. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.1pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 1.9pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: right; text-indent: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_110289"
o:spid="_x0000_i1030" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:396pt;height:150.75pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image057.png"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="201" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image058.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_110289" width="528" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar 11. Indeks kekeringan
meteorologis berdasar indeks SPI. </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Sumber: Al-Tamimi dkk (2012) </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.5pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Indeks SPI dihitung dengan
menggunakan fungsi distribusi gamma. Perhitungan indeks curah hujan SPI ini
digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi indeks kekeringan meteorologis. Berdasar
Gambar 11. dapat dilihat sebaran tingkat kekeringan meteorologis di wilayah penelitian.
Area dengan tingkat kekeringan ekstrim terdapat di bagian utara dengan jumlah
yang relatif kecil dibandingkan tingkat kekeringan yang lain. Secara spasial
nampak ada kecenderungan penurunan tingkat kekeringan arah tenggara. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 12.4pt; margin-left: 4.35pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">c.</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></b><b><span lang="IN">PJ dan SIG untuk kajian erosi </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Anak-anak
yang saya sayangi, erosi merupakan ancaman lingkungan yang utama terhadap
keberlangsungan dan kemampuan produktivitas lahan. Erosi pada lahan pertanian
dapat mengakibatkan berkurangnya jumlah lahan yang produktif. Evaluasi tingkat
erosi tanah dipengaruhi oleh faktor curah hujan, tanah, tutupan lahan, dan
topografi. Aplikasi penginderaan jauh dan sistem informasi geografis untuk
perhitungan erosi ini di contohkan oleh Kefi dkk (2011) yang mengaplikasikan
model RUSLE dengan menggunakan data penginderaan jauh dan metode sistem
informasi geografis. Data penginderaan jauh yang digunakan adalah citra
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer Enhanced Vegetation Index
(MODIS-EVI). Citra ini berupa citra multi temporal yang digunakan untuk
identifikasi dinamika tutupan vegetasi. Data penginderaan jauh yang lain adalah
citra ASTER GDEM. Data citra ASTER GDEM ini dimanfaatkan untuk memperoleh data
kemiringan lereng dan panjang lereng di daerah penelitian. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.75pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Parameter yang digunakan adalah
parameter dari model RUSLE, yaitu curah hujan (R), erodibilitas (K), kemiringan
lereng dan panjang lereng (LS), tutupan vegetasi (C), dan parameter pengelolaan
(P). Parameter curah hujan diturunkan dari data curah hujan. Parameter tutupan
vegetasi diturunkan dari data citra MODIS EVI. Indeks EVI dipilih untuk
meningkatkan sensibilitas data citra pada area yang memiliki tutupan vegetasi
jarang. Pemanfaatan dari indeks ini juga ditujukan untuk meminimalisir gangguan
atmosferik yang mungkin terjadi di daerah penelitian. Parameter erodibilitas
diperoleh dari peta tanah. Peta tanah dibentuk dengan menggunakan metode
digitasi peta tanah dasar melalui perangkat lunak sistem informasi geografis.
Sementara itu data kemiringan dan panjang lereng diturunkan dari citra ASTER
GDEM. Model perhitungan menggunakan model RUSLE yang diformulasikan sebagai
berikut. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 6.9pt; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN">A = R x K x LS x C x P <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 1.95pt;"><span lang="IN">Keterangan : <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN">A
: Kehilangan tanah per tahun <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN">R
: erosivitas curah hujan <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN">K
: faktor erodibilitas <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN">LS
: kemiringan dan panjang lereng <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN">C
: faktor pengelolaan lahan <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.75pt;"><span lang="IN">P : nilai pengelolaan lahan <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Prosedur yang
dilakukan dalam penelitian ini adalah seperti pada diagram alur berikut. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 9.1pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 20.25pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: right; text-indent: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: .5pt; position: relative; top: -.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_110442"
o:spid="_x0000_i1029" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:378pt;height:334.5pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image059.png"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="446" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image060.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_110442" width="504" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar 12. Diagram alur penilaian risiko erosi. Sumber : Kefi
dkk (2011) </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 145%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Data curah hujan dihitung dan
diekstrapolasi menjadi data peta curah hujan. Data ini menjadi fakor R pada
prosedur kerja tersebut. Citra satelit Landsat dilakukan proses klasifikasi dan
indek. Hasil pengolahan citra ini menghasilkan peta tutupan lahan dan peta
penggunaan lahan. Kedua peta ini menjadi faktor C pada prosedur tersebut. Data
observasi tanah di ekstrapolasikan menjadi peta litofasies. Peta ini
selanjutnya menjadi faktor K dari prosedur kerja tersebut. Citra GDEM Aster
diolah menjadi peta kemiringan lereng dan sekaligus menjadi faktor LS dalam
prosedur tersebut. Faktor P atau pengelolaan lahan diberi nilai tetapan satu,
sehingga tidak perlu dipetakan. Proses dilakukan secara digital menggunakan
perangkat lunak SIG. Perhitungan dalam kajian ini menghasilkan sebaran tingkat
erosi seperti dalam Gambar 13. berikut. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.3pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 23.85pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: right; text-indent: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_110492" o:spid="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:350.25pt;
height:300pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image061.png"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="400" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image062.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_110492" width="467" /><!--[endif]--></span> <span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin: 0cm -0.75pt 0.0001pt 80.4pt; text-indent: -77.3pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 101%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar 13.
Peta kehilangan tanah
menggunakan metode RUSLE berdasar data citra penginderaan jauh
dan SIG. Sumber: Kefi dkk (2011) </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 145%; margin-bottom: 12.5pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 13. merupakan citra hasil
perhitungan erosi menggunakan metode RUSLE berdasar citra penginderaan jauh dan
SIG yang dilakukan oleh Kefi dkk (2011). Hasil perhitungan secara jelas
menggambarkan lokasi sebaran erosi secara spasial. Tingkat erosi disimbolkan
oleh gradasi kecerahan pada peta. Erosi rendah disimbolkan dengan warna cerah,
sementara tingkat erosi tinggi disimbolkan dengan warna gelap. Area dengan
tingkat erosi yang tinggi tersebar meluas di bagian utara wilayah penelitian.
Tingkat erosi tinggi di wilayah selatan membentuk alur-alur memanjang lembah
dan gully. Sebaran erosi tersebut menunjukkan pengaruh topografi dan faktor
pengelolaan lahan terhadap tingkat erosi tanah yang terjadi diwilayah
penelitian. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 2.1pt; margin-left: 4.35pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">4.</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></b><b><span lang="IN">Pemanfaatan PJ dan SIG untuk Pembangunan Wilayah </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 6.8pt; margin-left: 8.15pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">a.</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></b><b><span lang="IN">PJ dan SIG untuk pengembangan area permukiman desa dan
kota </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Kebutuhan
area permukiman merupakan satu masalah yang harus diperhatikan terutama di
negara-negara sedang berkembang. Area permukiman selalu mengalami peningkatan
yang pesat. Pertumbuhan area permukiman sering mengarah pada ketidakteraturan
jika tidak ditata dalam perkembangannya. Berdasar hal tersebut pemantauan dan
penataan area permukiman sangat diperlukan. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Penginderaan
jauh dan SIG telah diaplikasikan untuk kajian perencanaan area permukiman kota
dan memberikan hasil yang baik. Kajian ini sebagian besar menggunakan data
penginderaan jauh pada resolusi spasial yang tinggi. Data citra penginderaan
jauh yang digunakan dalam hal ini sebagai contoh adalah citra Ikonos dan
QuickBird. Citra Ikonos memiliki resolusi 1 meter sementara citra QuickBird
memiliki resolusi 0,6 meter. Kedua citra tersebut dapat digunakan untuk
menginterpretasi obyek rumah penduduk secara individual. Kedetilan dari resolusi
citra ini juga dapat digunakan untuk interpretasi kualitas dari suatu
permukiman melalui ciri-ciri kepadatan dan karakteristik rumah yang ada dalam
lokasi permukiman tersebut. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Satu kajian tentang
pemanfaatan data penginderaan jauh dan SIG untuk aplikasi perencanaan area
permukiman adalah seperti dilakukan oleh Busgeeth dkk (2008). Kajian ini
memanfaatkan data citra QuickBird sebagai sebagai sumber informasi sebaran
rumah penduduk. Tujuan dari kajian ini adalah untuk mengkaji karakteristik
permukiman yang dapat di interpretasi melalui data citra QuickBird dan mengkaji
tipologi permukiman di wilayah penelitian. Sebaran rumah penduduk
diinterpretasi secara visual menggunakan perangkat lunak SIG. Komplek rumah
penduduk didelineasi secara langsung pada layar komputer (onscreen). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Karakteristik
permukiman dinilai berdasar beberapa variabel yaitu ukuran, layout permukiman,
struktur bangungan, jasa-jasa yang tersedia, dan infrastruktur. Atribut
permukiman yang dapat diamati dari data citra QuickBird tersebut adalah seperti
pada tabel berikut. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 7.25pt; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN">Tabel 1. Atribut
permukiman yang diamati melalui data citra QuickBird <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="TableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 9.55pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 529px;">
<tbody><tr style="height: 21.1pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="background: #D9D9D9; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 21.1pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 203.65pt;" valign="top" width="272">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><b><i><span lang="IN">Atribut spasial permukiman </span></i></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="background: #D9D9D9; border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 21.1pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 193.25pt;" valign="top" width="258">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><b><i><span lang="IN">Karakteristik </span></i></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 21.25pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 21.25pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 203.65pt;" valign="top" width="272">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i><span lang="IN">Ukuran </span></i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 21.25pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 193.25pt;" valign="top" width="258">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">keseragaman ukuran <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 20.9pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-bottom: none; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 20.9pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 203.65pt;" valign="top" width="272">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i><span lang="IN">Layout
permukiman </span></i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #F2F2F2; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 20.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 193.25pt;" valign="top" width="258">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 6.75pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">keteraturan layout <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Area terbuka <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 21.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="background: white; border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 21.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 203.65pt;" valign="top" width="272">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i> </i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 21.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-bottom: none; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 21.0pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 203.65pt;" valign="top" width="272">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i><span lang="IN">Struktur
bangunan </span></i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 21.0pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 193.25pt;" valign="top" width="258">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 110.5pt 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">material warna atap <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 20.65pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: none; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 20.65pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 203.65pt;" valign="top" width="272">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i> </i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 21.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 21.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 203.65pt;" valign="top" width="272">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i> </i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 21.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 193.25pt;" valign="top" width="258">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">kepadatan <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 20.9pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-bottom: none; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 20.9pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 203.65pt;" valign="top" width="272">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i><span lang="IN">Layanan
teknis </span></i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 20.9pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 193.25pt;" valign="top" width="258">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">jaringan jalan <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 20.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td rowspan="3" style="background: white; border-bottom: none; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 20.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 203.65pt;" valign="top" width="272">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 6.9pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i> </i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 6.8pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i><span lang="IN"> </span></i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i><span lang="IN"> </span></i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 20.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 193.25pt;" valign="top" width="258">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">telekomunikasi <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 20.65pt; mso-yfti-irow: 9;">
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 20.65pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 193.25pt;" valign="top" width="258">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">listrik <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 20.8pt; mso-yfti-irow: 10;">
<td style="border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 20.8pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 193.25pt;" valign="top" width="258">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">air dan sanitasi <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 20.65pt; mso-yfti-irow: 11;">
<td style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 20.65pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 203.65pt;" valign="top" width="272">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i> </i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 20.65pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 193.25pt;" valign="top" width="258">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">drainase utama <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 21.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 12;">
<td style="background: white; border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 21.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 203.65pt;" valign="top" width="272">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i> </i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 21.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 193.25pt;" valign="top" width="258">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">pengelolaan sampah <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 20.9pt; mso-yfti-irow: 13;">
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-bottom: none; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 20.9pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 203.65pt;" valign="top" width="272">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i><span lang="IN">Insfrastruktur
</span></i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 20.9pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 193.25pt;" valign="top" width="258">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Pendidikan <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 20.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 14;">
<td rowspan="3" style="background: white; border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 20.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 203.65pt;" valign="top" width="272">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 6.9pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i> </i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 6.75pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i><span lang="IN"> </span></i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><i><span lang="IN"> </span></i><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 20.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 193.25pt;" valign="top" width="258">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">area bisnis <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 20.65pt; mso-yfti-irow: 15;">
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 20.65pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 193.25pt;" valign="top" width="258">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">fasilitas sosial <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 20.95pt; mso-yfti-irow: 16; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 20.95pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 193.25pt;" valign="top" width="258">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">fasilitas transportasi <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: 6.4pt; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: .5pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: right;"><span lang="IN">Sumber : Busgeeth, 2008 <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Tabel 1.
menunjukkan variabel-variabel yang dapat diamati dari data citra QuickBird.
Variabel ukuran bangunan yang dapat dengan mudah diamati adalah faktor
keseragaman ukuran bangunannya. Pada beberapa area nampak ukuran bangunan tidak
seragam. Kondisi ini mengindikasikan proses pertumbuhan permukiman tersebut
terjadi secara alamiah. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Variabel layout
permukiman nampak pada faktor keteraturannya. Area permukiman yang dibangun
secara terrencana nampak adanya pola-pola yang teratur dengan ukuran bangunan
yang relatif seragam, dan bentuk hampir sama.
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Struktur
bangunan dapat diperkirakan melalui material bangunan yang digunakan seperti
bangunan batu permanen, bangunan batu semi permanen, dan rumah kayu. Material
bangunan ini dapat menggambarkan kondisi perekonomian penguni permukiman
tersebut. Warna dan kecerahan atap dapat digunakan sebagai indikasi umur
bangunan. Area permukiman dengan warna atap rata-rata cerah mengindikasikan
bahwa permukiman tersebut adalah permukiman yang masih baru. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Layanan
teknis menunjukkan banyaknya sarana teknis yang tersedia pada area permukiman
tersebut. Kondisi ini dapat digunakan sebagai indikator taraf hidup sosial
rata-rata masyarakat. Kondisi jaringan jalan yang nampak beraspal mencirikan
wilayah yang lebih tersentuh pembangunan dibandingkan wilayah dengan jaringan
jalan berupa tanah atau batu. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Infrastruktur
pendukung juga dapat digunakan sebagai indikasi kemajuan budaya dari lingkungan
tersebut. Ketersediaan sarana pendidikan, jasa, area bisnis, sosial dan
transportasi menunjukkan kondisi yang lebih maju dibandingkan wilayah yang
tidak memiliki sarana tersebut. Bentuk permukiman penduduk di wilayah
penelitian yang teridentifikasi adalah seperti Gambar 14. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 50.1pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: right; text-indent: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_110893" o:spid="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:298.5pt;
height:138.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image063.png"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="185" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image064.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_110893" width="398" /><!--[endif]--></span> <span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar 14. Karakteristik kepadatan
permukiman berdasar citra QuickBird. </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Sumber : Busgeeth, 2008 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 14.
menunjukkan pola kepadatan dari beberapa kelompok permukiman di wilayah
penelitian. Terdapat perbedaan pola yang berkaitan dengan variabel-variabel di
atas. Observasi terhadap ketiga gambar tersebut menunjukkan adanya perbedaan
yang paling nyata adalah pada layout tata ruang permukiman tersebut. Kondisi
ini mengindikasikan proses perkembangan wilayah ini. Gambar 14 paling kiri
mencirikan perkembangan pemukiman secara alamiah. Rumah penduduk dibangun oleh
pemilik tanah tanpa adanya perencanaan wilayah tersebut. Gambar tengah dan
paling kanan menunjukkan adanya keteraturan yang lebih baik, namun terdapat
perbedaan ukuran dan struktur bangunannya. Berdasar interpretasi dan analisis
beberapa variabel yang ada nampak kedua gambar tersebut adalah area permukiman
yang berkembang dengan satu perencanaan. Gambar 14 paling kanan mencirikan
permukiman tersebut memiliki usia yang relatif lebih lama dibandingkan dengan
usia permukiman pada Gambar 14 tengah. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.5pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Tipologi permukiman dapat
diinterpretasi dari data citra QuickBird tersebut. Tipologi permukiman dapat
didasarkan pada karakteristik variabel spasial di atas. Bentuk tipologi dari
beberapa area permukiman di wilayah penelitian tergolong seperti pada Tabel 2.
berikut <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 7.3pt; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN">Tabel 2. Tipologi
permukiman secara umum <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="TableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 47.0pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm .2pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 427px;">
<tbody><tr style="height: 21.0pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="background: #F0F0F0; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 21.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm .2pt; width: 132.95pt;" valign="top" width="177">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 14.2pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">Klasifikasi </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="background: #F0F0F0; border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 21.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm .2pt; width: 186.9pt;" valign="top" width="249">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 8.8pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">Tipe geografis </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 21.3pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 21.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm .2pt; width: 132.95pt;" valign="top" width="177">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 14.2pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Perkotaan <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 21.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm .2pt; width: 186.9pt;" valign="top" width="249">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 8.8pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Perkotaan formal <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 21.25pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 21.25pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm .2pt; width: 132.95pt;" valign="top" width="177">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 14.2pt; text-indent: 0cm;"> <span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 21.25pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm .2pt; width: 186.9pt;" valign="top" width="249">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 8.8pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Perkotaan informal <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 21.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
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<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 14.2pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Perdesaan <o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 8.8pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Perdesaan formal <o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"> <span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 8.8pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Kesukuan / pedalaman <o:p></o:p></span></p>
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</v:group><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" height="3" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image065.png" v:shapes="Group_x0020_110971 Shape_x0020_120676 Shape_x0020_11237" width="3" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Sumber : Busgeeth, 2008 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Permukiman
secara umum terklasifikasi sebagai wilayah perkotaan dan wilayah perdesaan.
Pada wilayah perkotaan terbagi menjadi area perkotaan formal dan area perkotaan
informal. Wilayah perdesaan terbagi menjadi area perdesaan formal dan area
pedalaman. Pada masing-masing tipe geografis tersebut terdapat jenis-jenis
bangunan dengan fungsi-fungsi tertentu seperti permukiman, area usaha dan
industri, rekreasi, dan perkantoran. Wilayah perdesaan juga ditemukan adanya
area persawahan yang menjadi penciri khas wilayah perdesaan ini. Busgeeth dkk
(2008) mengusulkan prosedur terotomasi berbasis SIG untuk menentukan tipologi
permukiman. Kerangka tersebut dijadikan sebagai dasar otomasi klasifikasi
menggunakan perangkat lunak SIG. Tidak seluruh alur digambarkan dalam modul
ini, penjelasan lengkap dapat membaca pada Busgeeth dkk (2004). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 32.15pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 12.4pt; margin-left: 8.15pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">b.</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></b><b><span lang="IN">PJ dan SIG untuk perencanaan area pertanian </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.5pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Area pertanian yang dicontohkan
di sini adalah pertanian tambak. Pertanian tambak di Indonesia memiliki peran
yang penting dalam perekonomian masyarakat khususnya masyarakat pantai.
Peningkatan produktivitas pertanian tambak didukung oleh ketersediaan lahan
tambak dengan jumlah dan kualitas yang memadai. Sejalan dengan hal ini
diperlukan kajian untuk mengembangkan area lahan tambak ini. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.5pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Penginderaan jauh dan sistem
informasi geografis telah berhasil digunakan untuk penentuan area lahan tambak
ini. Contoh dari penelitian ini dilakukan oleh Priyono dan Rahayu (2003),
Radiarta (2008), dan Gusmawati dkk (2017). Penelitian tersebut diarahkan pada
perencanaan pengembangan lahan tambak udang dan perikanan. Data yang digunakan
adalah data dari foto udara dan citra satelit. Perangkat lunak SIG dimanfaatkan
untuk melakukan proses digitalisasi peta tematik yang menjadi variabel
penelitian serta alat analisis. Observasi lapangan dilakukan untuk mendapatkan
data primer seperti lokasi tambak eksisting, permasalahan yang pernah terjadi
pada lokasi tambak, dan kondisi terkini dari area yang direncanakan. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.6pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Priyono dan Rahayu (2003)
menetapkan beberapa parameter pokok yang menjadi dasar analisis pemilihan
lokasi pengembangan lahan tambak. Parameter tersebut adalah lereng, tekstur
tanah, jarak dari laut, jarak dari sungai, curah hujan, frekuensi kejadian
banjir, dan penggunaan lahan eksisting. Berdasar parameter tersebut lahan yang
dinyatakan ideal adalah area yang datar dengan tekstur tanah kasar berpasir,
tidak jauh dari sumber air laut dan sungai, tidak pernah terjadi banjir,
penggunaan lahan eksisting sebagai tanah terbuka atau tegalan, dan curah hujan
antara 2000 hingga 3000 mm pertahun. Nilai dari seluruh parameter dihitung
melalui satu formulasi dengan mempertimbangkan nilai bobot tertentu dari setiap
parameter. Proses dilakukan dengan menggunakan perangkat lunak SIG seperti QGIS
dan lain-lain <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 32.15pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 12.75pt 32.15pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN">Formulasi yang digunakan
dalam perhitungan ini adalah sebagai berikut. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 13.25pt; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN">Y = </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Segoe UI Symbol","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Segoe UI Symbol"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Segoe UI Symbol"; mso-no-proof: yes;"></span><span lang="IN">ai.Xn <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN">Keterangan
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN">Y :
Jumlah nilai total kesesuaian lahan <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN">Ai
: bobot <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.9pt;"><span lang="IN">Xn : harkat <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.5pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Nilai bobot dari masing-masing
parameter didasarkan pada nilai penting tiap parameter tersebut terhadap
tambak. Bobot dan harkat dari masing-masing parameter dapat dilihat pada Tabel
3 berikut. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2><span lang="IN">Tabel 3. Bobot
variabel <o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="TableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 4.15pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 519px;">
<tbody><tr style="height: 14.2pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #F2F2F2; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 14.2pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 127.3pt;" valign="top" width="170">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">Variabel </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #F2F2F2; border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 14.2pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 42.55pt;" valign="top" width="57">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.55pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">Bobot </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; height: 14.2pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.85pt;" valign="top" width="94">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; height: 14.2pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.95pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">Harkat </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 14.2pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 77.95pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 14.2pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.2pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.85pt;" valign="top" width="94">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">3 </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.2pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.95pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">2 </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="background: #F2F2F2; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.2pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 77.95pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">1 </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 14.35pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 14.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 127.3pt;" valign="top" width="170">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Lereng (%) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 42.55pt;" valign="top" width="57">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">10 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.85pt;" valign="top" width="94">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">< 2 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.95pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">2 – 5 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 77.95pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">>5 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 14.3pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 14.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 127.3pt;" valign="top" width="170">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Tekstur tanah <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 42.55pt;" valign="top" width="57">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">20 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.85pt;" valign="top" width="94">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Kasar </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.95pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Sedang </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 77.95pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Halus </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 14.3pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 14.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 127.3pt;" valign="top" width="170">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Jarak dari laut (m) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 42.55pt;" valign="top" width="57">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">25 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.85pt;" valign="top" width="94">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;"><1000 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.95pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">1000-2000 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 77.95pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">>2000 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 14.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 14.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 127.3pt;" valign="top" width="170">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Jarak dari sungai (m) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 42.55pt;" valign="top" width="57">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">15 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.85pt;" valign="top" width="94">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;"><500 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.95pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">500-1000 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 77.95pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">>1000 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 34.9pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 34.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 127.3pt;" valign="top" width="170">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Curah hujan (mm/th) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 34.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 42.55pt;" valign="top" width="57">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">10 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 34.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.85pt;" valign="top" width="94">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">2000-3000 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 34.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.95pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 97%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 97%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">10002000,3000-</span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">3500 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 34.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 77.95pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;"><1000, >3500 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 23.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 23.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 127.3pt;" valign="top" width="170">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Frekuensi banjir <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 23.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 42.55pt;" valign="top" width="57">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">10 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 23.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.85pt;" valign="top" width="94">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Tidak pernah </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 23.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.95pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Kadangkadang </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 23.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 77.95pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">sering </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 23.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 8; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 23.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 127.3pt;" valign="top" width="170">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN">Penggunaan lahan <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 23.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 42.55pt;" valign="top" width="57">
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">10 </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 23.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.85pt;" valign="top" width="94">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Tegal, tanah terbuka </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 23.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 70.95pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Sawah, kebun campur </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 23.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.75pt 0cm 5.35pt; width: 77.95pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0.05pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">permukiman </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: 12.75pt; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: .5pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: right;"><span lang="IN">Sumber : Priyono dan
Rahayu (2003) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Jarak dari laut memiliki
bobot paling tinggi karena lokasi tambak untuk udang dalam penelitian ini yang
ideal adalah berada di dekat laut. Tekstur tanah kasar berpasir dinilai
merupakan hal yang penting karena tekstur yang kasar akan memiliki kekuatan yang
baik bagi konstruksi tambak ini. Seluruh parameter dipetakan dan dibobot sesuai
dengan nilai pada tabel tersebut. Hasil overlay dari seluruh parameter
menghasilkan satu peta kesesuaian lahan tambak udang. Peta kesesuaian dibagi
menjadi tiga kelas, yaitu kelas I (S1/Sesuai, jika nilai > 240 ), II
(S2/Cukup Sesuai, jika nilai 170 - 240), dan III (N/Tidak sesuai, jika nilai
< 170). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 12.75pt 32.15pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 12.4pt; margin-left: 8.15pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm;"><b><span lang="IN">c.</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></b><b><span lang="IN">PJ dan SIG untuk kajian kesehatan lingkungan </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Anak-anak
yang saya sayangi, seperti telah kita ketahui bersama perkembangan penginderaan
jauh dan sistem informasi geografis pada saat ini telah merambah pada bidang
kesehatan. Aplikasi pada bidang ini terutama dimanfaatkan dalam hal pengawasan
dan kontrol terhadap potensi penyakit (Beck dkk, 2000). Aplikasi penginderaan
jauh dan SIG dalam bidang kesehatan ini banyak digunakan untuk menilai faktor
lingkungan sebagai pemicu pemunculan vektor penyakit. Potensi aplikasi
pengideraan jauh dan SIG ini selanjutnya adalah untuk memahami karakteristik
pola spasial dan temporal risiko penularan suatu penyakit. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Aplikasi
penginderaan jauh dan SIG untuk pengawasan penyakit kolera dicontohkan oleh
Rasam dan Noor (2012). Penyakit bawaan makanan seperti kolera, disentri,
hepatitis A dipicu oleh adanya kontaminasi mikroorganisme pada makanan. Kontaminasi
mikroorganisme ini berasal dari adanya pencemaran yang terjadi pada lingkungan.
Kondisi lingkungan inilah yang selanjutnya menjadi variabel yang terrekam oleh
penginderaan jauh dan dapat dianalisis untuk tujuan pengawasan penyakit ini
menggunakan SIG. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 145%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Contoh lain
adalah aplikasi penginderaan jauh dan sistem informasi geografis untuk
penilaian dan pemantauan risiko penyakit malaria yang dilakukan oleh Ceccato
dkk (2005). Parameter lingkungan menjadi dasar analisis kajian ini. Curah hujan
menjadi salah satu pemicu berkembangnya nyamuk malaria. Peningkatan curah hujan
berasosiasi dengan peningkatan endemi malaria. Terkait dengan hal ini, data
penginderaan jauh dapat berperan dalam perekaman cuaca untuk perkiraan
intensitas curah hujan. Citra inframerah termal dapat digunakan untuk
mengestimasi temperatur awan bagian atas. Hujan akan terjadi pada kondisi suhu
awan berada sekitar -40 hingga -70 <sup>o</sup>C. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Temperatur
memberikan efek pada vektor dan parasite malaria. Temperatur perkembangan
vektor dan parasit malaria berada pada rentang 22 - 26 <sup>o</sup>C.
Temperatur permukaan lahan dapat diindera menggunakan data thermal NOAAAVHRR,
Meteosat dan Terra-MODIS. Citra ini memiliki cakupan yang luas dan memadai
untuk perekaman pancaran termal permukaan bumi. Kelembaban diperlukan untuk
berkembangbiaknya larva nyamuk malaria ini. Beberapa citra indeks seperti
indeks vegetasi dapat digunakan sebagai penduga tingkat kelembaban perlukaan
lahan. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Permukaan air adalah tempat
berkembangbiaknya nyamuk malaria, sehingga indentifikasi terhadap sebaran
permukaan air sangat diperlukan dalam identifikasi sumber vektor malaria.
Identifikasi tutupan air dapat di lakukan dengan saluran inframerah. Saluran
ini akan terserap habis oleh tubuh air, sehingga akan memberikan warna yang
kontras dengan lahan kering di sekitarnya. Kombinasi dari parameter-parameter
tersebut di atas dapat dijadikan dasar identifikasi area perkembangbiakan
vektor dan parasit malaria. Gambar 15. berikut menunjukkan area lahan basah
dengan kelembaban tinggi yang memungkinkan menjadi area perkembangbiakan nyamuk
malaria <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 80pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_111642" o:spid="_x0000_i1026" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:243.75pt;
height:127.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image066.png"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="170" src="file:///C:/Users/USER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image067.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_111642" width="325" /><!--[endif]--></span> <span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 102%; margin-bottom: 11.9pt; margin-left: .5pt; margin-right: -.75pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 102%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar 15. Klasifikasi citra SPOT 4 Xi. Sumber : Ceccato dkk
(2005) </span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.1pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Gambar 15 adalah citra
klasifikasi dari citra SPOT Xi yang menunjukkan sebaran area lahan basah dengan
kelembaban tinggi. Area dengan warna biru merupakan sebaran area lahan basah
dengan kelembaban yang tinggi. Area dengan warna biru merupakan klasifikasi dari
piksel-piksel citra SPOT Xi dengan nilai yang merujuk pada sampel area tubuh
air. Sejalan dengan hal tersebut, maka area tersebut diperkirakan sebagai area
yang berpotensi dapat menjadi tempat perkembangbiakan nyamuk malaria. Berdasar
pada citra klasifikasi tersebut dapat dengan jelas diidentifikasi sebaran area
potensi perkembangbiakan nyamuk beserta luasnya. Informasi tersebut selanjutnya
digunakan sebagai dasar pengambilan kebijakan pengendalian vektor penyebab
penyakit malaria. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 6.75pt 32.15pt; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 12.4pt; margin-left: 25.2pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -21.35pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN">F.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN">RANGKUMAN </span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 146%; margin-left: 3.1pt; text-indent: 28.3pt;"><span lang="IN">Kemampuan
yang dimiliki oleh penginderaan jauh dan sistem informasi geografis dapat
saling mengisi dan melengkapi. Sinergi dari penginderaan jauh dan sistem
informasi geografis terbukti memberikan hasil yang baik untuk pemecahan
permasalahan yang berkaitan dengan data spasial. Aplikasi PJ dan SIG untuk
kajian air tanah dapat digunakan untuk identifikasi area recharge dan discharge
air tanah. Identifikasi didasarkan pada nilai thermal permukaan lahan. Metode
lain adalah dengan menggunakan parameter litologi dan kelurusan permukaan lahan
yang diturunkan dari data citra satelit resolusi menengah dan diperkuat melalui
observasi lapangan. Pemanfaatan PJ dan SIG untuk aplilasi bencana banjir adalah
dengan menggunakan parameter kondisi topografi dan morfometri lahan. Parameter
ini diturunkan dari data DEM dan diolah melalui prosedur AHP dalam SIG.
Aplikasi PJ dan SIG untuk perhitungan erosi tanah sering dilakukan dengan
menerapkan model perhitungan erosi seperti RUSLE. Sebagian dari parameter model
tersebut diturunkan melalui data penginderaan jauh sumberdaya dan ASTER GDEM.
Kajian kekeringan dapat dihitung dengan menggunakan anomali NDVI yang diperoleh
melalui perbandingan nilai NDVI maksimal dan NDVI rata-rata dalam masa
penelitian. Nilai NDVI diperoleh melalui perbandingan band inframerah dan band
merah. Kajian pemukiman dilakukan dengan memanfaatkan citra satelit berresolusi
tinggi seperti QuickBird. Identifikasi tipologi permukiman didasarkan pada
karakteristik atribut spasial permukiman. Berdasar parameter tersebut dapat
diidentifikasi tipologi permukiman informal permukiman tradisional hingga
permukiman perkotaan formal. Aplikasi PJ dan SIG untuk kesehatan dilakukan
dengan memonitor parameter lingkungan yang dapat menjadi pemicu perkembang
biakan vektor penyakit. Aplikasi penginderaan jauh dan SIG dapat digunakan
sarana pengawasan dan kontrol terhadap potensi dan penyebaran penyakit. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 101%; margin-bottom: 12.4pt; margin-left: 25.2pt; margin-right: .35pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -21.35pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN">G.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN"> <b>DAFTAR PUSTAKA<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.95pt; margin-left: 48.95pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -49.7pt;"><span lang="IN"> Agung Budi Raharjo. 2016. <i>Buku Siswa Geografi untuk SMA/MA X Peminatan Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial. </i>Surakarta:
Mediatama. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> Danang Endarto, dkk. 2009. <i>Geografi untuk SMA/MA Kelas XII</i>.
Jakarta: Pusat <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 50.2pt;"><span lang="IN">pembukuan, Departemen Pendidikan
Nasional. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 8.25pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> Eni. A dan Tri. H. 2012. <i><u>Tahapan kerja sistem informasi geografi</u></i></span><a href="http://www.ssbelajar.net/2012/10/tahapan-kerja-sistem-informasi-geografi.html"><i><span lang="IN" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">.</span></i></a><a href="http://www.ssbelajar.net/2012/10/tahapan-kerja-sistem-informasi-geografi.html"><span style="color: black; text-decoration-line: none;"> </span></a><span lang="IN"> Diunduh melalui </span><a href="http://www.ssbelajar.net/"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">www.ssbelajar.net</span></a><a href="http://www.ssbelajar.net/"><span style="color: black; text-decoration-line: none;"> </span></a><span lang="IN">pada tanggal 17 Mei 2017, pukul 22.55 wib). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 8.3pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> Fitho Galandi. 2016. </span><a href="http://www.pengetahuandanteknologi.com/2016/10/pengolahan-data-dalam-sistem-lnformasi.html"><i><span lang="IN" style="color: black; text-decoration-line: none;">P</span></i></a><a href="http://www.pengetahuandanteknologi.com/2016/10/pengolahan-data-dalam-sistem-lnformasi.html"><i><span lang="IN" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">engolahan data dalam sistem lnformasi geografis (SIG)</span></i></a><a href="http://www.pengetahuandanteknologi.com/2016/10/pengolahan-data-dalam-sistem-lnformasi.html"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">. D</span></a><span lang="IN">iunduh melaui </span><a href="http://www.pengetahuandanteknologi.com/"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;">www.pengetahuandanteknologi.com</span></a><a href="http://www.pengetahuandanteknologi.com/"><span style="color: black; text-decoration-line: none;">
</span></a><span lang="IN">pada
tanggal 17 Mei 2017, pukul 23.10 wib. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.95pt; margin-left: 48.95pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -49.7pt;"><span lang="IN"> Gatot Harmanto. (2013). <i>Geografi 1 untuk Kelas SMA dan MA Kelompok Peminatan Ilmu Sosial</i>.
Bandung: YramaWidya. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 8.25pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> K. Endro S & M. Nursaban. 2010. Kartografi
Dasar. Yogyakarta: UNY. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 8.3pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> K. Wardiyatmoko. 2013. Geografi untuk SMA/MA
Kelas XII. Jakarta: Erlangga. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.95pt; margin-left: 48.95pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -49.7pt;"><span lang="IN"> Lili Sumantri. 2016. Buku Siswa Aktif dan
Keatif Belajar Geografi 3. Bandug: Grafindo. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.95pt; margin-left: 48.95pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -49.7pt;"><span lang="IN"> Sutanto. 1986. Penginderaan<i> Jauh Jilid I</i>. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada
University Press. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.95pt; margin-left: 48.95pt; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -49.7pt;"><span lang="IN"> Tim Praktikum SIG. 2014. <i>Panduan Praktikum Sistem Informasi Geografis</i>. Yogyakarta : <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5pt;"><span lang="IN">Program Studi Pendidikan
Geografi. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 8.3pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: .45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> Yashinto Sindhu P. 2016. Geografi untuk SMA/MA
Kelas X. Jakarta: Erlangga. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="IN"> Yulmadia Yulir. 2013. Geografi untuk SMA Kelas
X. Bogor: Yudistira. <o:p></o:p></span></p><span class="fullpost">
</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-51737870974173693172021-02-14T15:35:00.000-08:002021-02-14T15:35:12.211-08:00Tenaga Pembentuk Permukaan Bumi dari Luar (Eksegoen)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCqYBA70U95YBTJBQ34W3lDV6D-9mz0GBDZrSxeXn1V7EetvctCPfc8G7mnas-wuEXa8xwa2hqiocMW1cA99J5v0y3ubxPetq5308WKBmXoMJtpejtaEfwG5AsmJsFRXuL2mQOSJ7khb9q/s640/zhangye-2713415_1280_hijn70.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="360" data-original-width="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCqYBA70U95YBTJBQ34W3lDV6D-9mz0GBDZrSxeXn1V7EetvctCPfc8G7mnas-wuEXa8xwa2hqiocMW1cA99J5v0y3ubxPetq5308WKBmXoMJtpejtaEfwG5AsmJsFRXuL2mQOSJ7khb9q/s320/zhangye-2713415_1280_hijn70.jpg" width="320" /></a></b></div><b style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br /> <span><a name='more'></a></span></b><p><b style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Tenaga Eksogen</b><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">adalah
tenaga yang berasal dari luar bumi, antara lain berasal dari hujan,
panas matahari, angin, aliran air, dan luncuran gletser serta makhluk
hidup. Tenaga eksogen dapat mengubah bentuk permukaan bumi menjadi
berlubang, berbukit dan bentuk lainnya. Tenaga eksogen ini bersifat
merusak. Artinya menyebabkan terjadinya kikiksan atau erosi, pelapukan,
dan pengangkutan material (mass wasting). Pada prosesnya menghasilkan
bentuk sisa (residual) dan bentuk endapan (depositional). Tenaga eksogen
dapat di bagi menjadi :</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /></p><ol style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><li><b style="background-color: white;">Weathering (Pelapukan).</b></li></ol><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Pelapukan
adalah segala perubahan dalam batuan karena pengaruh keadaan cuaca
(misalnya air, suhu). Adanya perbedaan temperatur yang tinggi dan
rendah, sangat besar pengaruhnya terhadap batu2an.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Macam2 jenis pelapukan antara lain :</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">1) <b>Pelapukan Fisis (Pelapukan Mekanik).</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Pelapukan
mekanik merupakan pelapukan batuan yang tidak disertai dengan perubahan
susunan kimia, seperti batuan yang besar pecah dan berubah menjadi
semakin kecil, selanjutnya sampai halus, tetapi susunan kimianya sama
dengan batuan induknya. Sebab2 pelapukan mekanis antara lain :</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><li><span style="background-color: white;">Insolasi (pengaruh sinar matahari) dan perubahan suhu.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Pembekuan.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Pengerjaan garam.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Daya erosi</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Gelombang laut yang memukul pantai.</span></li></ul><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/pelapukan-batuan.jpg" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #bc0404; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-195" height="375" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/pelapukan-batuan.jpg?w=530&h=375" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Pelapukan Batuan" width="530" /></a><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">2) <b>Pelapukan Kimia</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Pelapukan
kimi merupakan pelapukan batuan melalui proses kimia yang disertai
dengan perubahan susunan zat dari mineral batuan induknya. Contohnya :
hancurnya batuan karena larutan batuan kapur yang dicampur oleh air
hujan yang banyak mengandung CO<sub>2.</sub></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">3) <b>Pelapukan Biologis (Pelapukan Organik)</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Pelapukan
organik merupakan pelapukan batuan yang disebabkan oleh oraganisme2
(tumbuh2an, hewan, dan manusia). Manusia dapat merusak ekosistem yang
lebih besar lagi, tetapi dapat juga memelihara ekosistem yang sudah
rusak dan memperbaharui lagi. Pelapukan organis sebagian masuk pelapukan
fisik dan sebagian masuk pelapukan kimia.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Pelapukan bioligis dapat digolongkan menjadi 2 yaitu :</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><li><span style="background-color: white;">Pelapukan biologis fisik, misalnya tekanan akar, merayapnya cacing, dan sebagainya.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Pelapukan
biologis kimia, misalnya pelapukan bunga tanah (humus), pengerjaan
jasad2 hidup pada batuan, yaitu dengan jalan mengeluarkan zat2 tertentu.</span></li></ul><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/pelapukan-biofisik-biokimia.jpg" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #bc0404; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-196" height="237" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/pelapukan-biofisik-biokimia.jpg?w=530&h=237" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Pelapukan Biofisik & Biokimia" width="530" /></a><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><b style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">2. Erosi (Pengikisan).</b><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Erosi
adalah proses pengikisan permukaan bumi oleh tenaga yang melibatkan
pengangkatan benda2 seperti air, es, angin, dan gelombang arus.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Macam2 jenis erosi, yaitu :</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">1) <b>Erosi Air</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Air
yang mengangkut batu2an yang hancur mempunyai kekuatan mengikis lebih
besar. Peristiwa gesekan pada erosi air tergantung pada : kecepatan
gerak, daya angkut air, dan keaadan permukaan.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/erosi-air.jpg" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #bc0404; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-201" height="195" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/erosi-air.jpg?w=530&h=195" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Erosi Air" width="530" /></a><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">2) <b>Abrasi, </b>adalah
pengikisan batuan yang disebabkan oleh pengerjaan air laut. Besar
kecilnya gelombang atau kecepatan angin, dapat menimbulkan perubahan
bentuk di sepanjang pantai disebut abrasi platform.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/abrasi.jpg" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #bc0404; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-197" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/abrasi.jpg?w=530" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Abrasi" /></a><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">3) <b>Gletser, </b>yaitu
pegikisan yang disebabkan oleh pengerjaan es . pengikisan oleh es
disebut juga glacial/eksarasi. Di daerah pegunungan yang tinggi sering
terdapat salju abadi atau es. Es bergerak turun melalui lereng dan
mengikis dasar lereng gunung serta mendorongnya ke lembah.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/es1607_p3_theb0011_b.jpg" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #bc0404; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-202" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/es1607_p3_theb0011_b.jpg?w=530" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="es1607_p3_theb0011_b" /></a><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">4) <b>Korasi, </b>yaitu pengikisan yang disebabkan oleh pengerjaan angin.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/batu-cendawan.jpg" style="color: #bc0404; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-198" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/batu-cendawan.jpg?w=530" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Batu Cendawan" /></a><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/sand-dune.jpg" style="color: #bc0404; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-199" height="201" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/sand-dune.jpg?w=530&h=201" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Sand Dune" width="530" /></a></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"> Erosi yang disebabkan oleh tenaga air, misalnya :</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">1) Erosi percikan, yaitu erosi yang disebabkan oleh tetesan air hujan yang memecahkan butir-butir tanah.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">2)
Erosi lembar, yaitu pengikisan dan pengangkutan lapisan tanah
permukaan, yang disebabkan oleh aliran air di permukaan tanah.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">3)
Erosi Alur, yaitu pengikisan lapisan tanah yang sudah membentuk
alur-alur dengan lebar < 40 cm dan kedalaman < 25 cm.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">4)
Erosi Parit, yaitu pengikisan lapisan tanah yang mebentuk alur-alur
yang lebih besar,sehingga sering disebut parit m ukuran lebar > 40 cm
dan kedalaman > 25 cm. Erosi tebing sungai, yaitu aliran air
sungai mengikis tebing sungai.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/photoles.jpg" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #bc0404; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-200" height="224" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/photoles.jpg?w=530&h=224" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Photoles" width="530" /></a><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><b style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">3. Sedimentasi (Pengendapan)</b><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Lapisan
hasil pelapukan yang terjadi dipermukaan bumi, baik di daratan yang
rata maupun di lereng2 bukit, pegunungan atau gunung dipengaruhi oleh
bermacam-macam kekuatan. Daerah yang terkena pelapukan maupun yang
menerima hasil pelapukan menghasilkan struktur morfologi yang
berbeda-beda.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Bentukan2 dalam proses pengendapan/sedimentasi di daerah pantai antara lain :</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">1) <b>Pesisir (Beach).</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Adalah pantai yang terdiri atas endapan pasir sebagai hasil erosi.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">2) <b>Dune</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Adalah bukit pasir di daerah pedalaman yang terjadi sebagai akibat hembusan angin di daerah pasir yang luas.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">3) <b>Spit dan Bar.</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Spit
adalah material pasir sebagai proses pengendapan yang terdapat di muka
teluk, berbentuk memanjang, dan salah satu ujungnya menyatu dengan
daratan. Sedangkan ujung lain terdapat di laut. Bar adalah punggungan
pasir dan kerikil yang diendapkan tepat diseberang teluk. Bila bar ini
menghubungkan dua pulau disebut tambolo.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">4) <b>Delta.</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Adalah
bentukan dari proses pengendapan erosi yang di bawa oleh aliran sungai
di daerah pantai. Dalam proses sedimentasi/pengendapan ini akan
menghasilkan batuan sedimentasi. Batuan sedimen juga dapat
diklasifikasikan berdasarkan tenaga alam yang mengangkut dan tempat
sedimen.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/delta.jpg" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #bc0404; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-203" height="205" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/delta.jpg?w=530&h=205" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Delta" width="530" /></a><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Berdasarkan tenaga alam yang mengangkutnya ada empat macam sedimen yaitu :</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><ol style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><li><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Sedimen Akuatis :</b> pengendapan oleh air</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Sedimen Aeris (Aeolis) :</b> pengendapan oleh angin</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Sedimen Glasial :</b> pengendapan oleh es</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Sedimen Marine :</b> pengendapan oleh air laut.</span></li></ol><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"> Berdasarkan tempatnya ada 5 macam sedimen, yaitu :</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><ol style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><li><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Teristris : </b>pengendapan di darat</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Sedimen Fluvial :</b> pengendapan di sungai</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Sedimen Limnis :</b> pengendapan di rawa2 atau danau</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Sedimen Marine :</b> pengendapan di laut</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Sedimen Glasial :</b> pengendapan di daerah es.</span></li></ol><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"> 4. <b>Pengangkutan Material (Mass Wasting)</b>.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Pengangkutan
material (mass wasting) terjadi karena adanya gaya gravitasi bumi
sehingga terjadi pengangkutan atau perpindahan material dari satu tempat
ke tempat lain. Proses <i>mass wasting</i> berlangsung dalam empat jenis pergerakan material.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">1) <b>Jenis pergerakan pelan (lambat).</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Rayapan
merupakan bentuk dari jenis pergerakan lambat pada proses mass wasting.
Rayapan adalah gerakan tanah dan puing batuan yang menuruni lereng
secara pelan, dan biasanya sulit untuk diamati kecuali dengan pengamatan
yang cermat. Rayapan terbagi menjadi beberapa jenis.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">a) <b>Rayapan tanah. </b>Yaitu gerakan tanah menuruni lereng.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">b) <b>Rayapan halus.</b> Yaitu gerakan puing batuan hasil pelapukan pada lereng curam yang menuruni lereng.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">c) <b>Rayapan batuan.</b> Yaitu gerakan blok-blok secara individual yang menuruni lereng.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">d) <b>Rayapan batuan gletser (rock glatsyer creep).</b> Yaitu gerakan lidah-lidah batuan yang tercampak menuruni lereng.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">e) <b>Solifluksi (solifluction).</b> Yaitu aliran pelan masa batuan yang banyak mengandung air menuruni lereng di dalam saluran tertentu.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">2) <b>Jenis pergerakan cepat.</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Jenis pergerakan ini dapat dibagi sebagai berikut :</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">a) <b>Aliran tanah. </b>Yaitu
gerakan berlempung atau berlumpur yang banyak mengandung air menuruni
teras atau lereng perbukitan yang kemiringannya kecil.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">b) <b>Aliran lumpur.</b> Yaitu gerak puing batuan yang banyak mengandung air menuruni saluran tertentu secara pelan hingga sangat cepat.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">c) <b>Gugur puing.</b> Yaitu puing-puing batuan yang meluncur di dalam saluran sempit menuruni lereng curam.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">3) <b>Longsor lahan (landslide).</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Gerakan
yang termasuk dalam kategori ini merupakan jenis yang mudah diamati,
dan biasanya berupa puing massa batuan. Gerakan tersebut dapat dibagi
menjadi :</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">a) <b>Luncur. </b>Yaitu
gerakan penggelinciran dari satu atau beberapa unit puing batuan, atau
biasanya disertai suatu putaran ke belakang pada lereng atas di tempat
gerakan tersebut terjadi.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">b) <b>Lonsor puing.</b> Yaitu peluncuran puing batuan yang tidak terpadatkan, dan berlangsung cepat tanpa putaran ke belakang.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">c) <b>Jatuh puing.</b> Yaitu puing batuan yang jatuh hampir bebas dari suatu permukaan yang vertikal atau menggantung.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">d) <b>Lonsor batu.</b> Yaitu massa batuan yang secara individu meluncur atau jatuh menuruni permukaan lapisan atau sesaran.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">e) <b>Jatuh batu.</b> Yaitu blok-blok batuan yang jatuh secara bebas dari lereng curam,</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">4) <b>Amblesan (subsidensi).</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Amblesan
yaitu pergeseran tempat ke arah bawah tanpa permukaan bebas dan tidak
menimbulkan pergeseran horizontal. Hal ini umumnya terjadi karena
perpindahan material secara pelan-pelan di daerah massa yang ambles.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"> <b>5. Denudasi.</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Adalah proses yang mengakibatkan perendahan relief daratan akibat longsor, pengerjaan manusia dan lain sebagainya. <br /></span><span class="fullpost">
</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-33149901555880686252021-01-24T06:04:00.004-08:002021-01-24T06:08:35.631-08:00Seisme (Aktivitas Gempa) dalam Perpektif Al-Qur'an<p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiByPAa3QdcZGhpHGVNboTLyDJOMkRtNmpmwmd3vVTInQIGXe8IXo32PVAN1fJ407ik8WnaFN-r0emBLBk2kG7IswaPtKCrh-uMmH1TZwewYmqy0Uw8HEaA8BJUaHi3Lx3ZjISwYZimIW4w/s1134/0.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="381" data-original-width="1134" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiByPAa3QdcZGhpHGVNboTLyDJOMkRtNmpmwmd3vVTInQIGXe8IXo32PVAN1fJ407ik8WnaFN-r0emBLBk2kG7IswaPtKCrh-uMmH1TZwewYmqy0Uw8HEaA8BJUaHi3Lx3ZjISwYZimIW4w/s320/0.png" width="320" /></a></div><br /><span><a name='more'></a></span>Dan ayat 91 di surat yang sama yang menunjuk kasus gempa yang dialami umat Nabi Syuaib. Firman Allah SWT: <p></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;">فَأَخَذَتْهُمُ ٱلرَّجْفَةُ فَأَصْبَحُوا۟ فِى دَارِهِمْ جَٰثِمِينَ </span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;">''Lalu, mereka dibinasakan oleh gempa bumi sehingga pagi harinya mereka bergelimpangan dalam rumahnya.''</span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;">Tidak jauh beda dari kedua ayat di atas, surat Hud ayat 67 kembali menunjuk kasus gempa yang menimpa umat Nabi Shaleh. Firman-Nya: </span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;">وَأَخَذَ ٱلَّذِينَ ظَلَمُوا۟ ٱلصَّيْحَةُ فَأَصْبَحُوا۟ فِى دِيَٰرِهِمْ جَٰثِمِينَ</span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;">''Dan, orang-orang yang aniaya itu ditimpa suara gemuruh, lalu mereka bergelimpangan dalam rumahnya.'' </span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;">Kemudian Surat Al-'Ankabut ayat 37 mengungkapkan kasus gempa yang dialami umat Nabi Syuaib. Firman-Nya: </span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;">فَكَذَّبُوهُ فَأَخَذَتْهُمُ ٱلرَّجْفَةُ فَأَصْبَحُوا۟ فِى دَارِهِمْ جَٰثِمِينَ</span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;">''Lalu mereka mendustakannya (Syuaib), kemudian mereka disiksa dengan gempa raya, lalu di pagi hari mereka bergelimpangan dalam rumahnya.''</span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;">Empat ayat Alquran di atas selayaknyalah mengundang manusia (terutama Muslim) agar melirik kasus gempa sebagai sebuah 'ibrah (pelajaran). Paling tidak, ada tiga hal yang dapat dilihat. </span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;"><strong>Pertama</strong>, kasus gempa bumi bukan hanya terjadi sekarang, melainkan telah terjadi di masa lampau dan mungkin akan terjadi lagi di masa datang. </span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;">Pengetahuan seperti itu membuka peluang kepada manusia untuk meningkatkan kehati-hatian dan bahkan mendeteksi saat-saat akan terjadinya gempa sebagai upaya menghindari bahaya yang lebih fatal. </span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;"><strong>Kedua</strong>, gempa bumi mutlak terjadi atas kehendak Yang Maha Kuasa (Allah SWT). Kendati menurut teori para ahli dan ilmuwan disebabkan gunung meletus atau pergeseran lempeng bumi dan sebagainya, semua itu tidak lain dari kehendak-Nya. Gempa bumi terjadi di luar kemampuan manusia atau makhluk lainnya.</span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;"><strong>Ketiga</strong>, kasus gempa bumi di zaman Nabi Shaleh dan Nabi Syuaib ternyata berhubungan dengan sikap umat yang mendurhakai Allah dan Rasul-Nya. Hal ini bukan hanya membuat kita terpukul oleh musibah gempa, melainkan juga mengharuskan kita melakukan koreksi diri. </span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;">Pertanyaannya, dosa apa yang telah kita lakukan sehingga Allah SWT Yang Maha Kuasa menakdirkan terjadinya gempa yang menghancurkan kota dan desa serta menewaskan manusia banyak?</span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;">Sebagai manusia lemah kita semua mutlak berserah diri kepada Yang Maha Kuasa. Harapan kita, gempa bumi yang telah terjadi dapat dilalui dengan penuh kesabaran dan menjadi sebuah bahan koreksi diri. Berlindung kita kepada-Nya dari sifat berputus asa dari rahmat-Nya. </span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;">Rasulullah SAW, ''Umatku ini dirahmati Allah dan tidak disiksa di akhirat, akan tetapi siksaan mereka di dunia berupa fitnah-fitnah, gempa bumi, peperangan, dan musibah-musibah.'' (HR Abu Daud).</span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #434343; font-family: roboto300; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 300; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 0px 10px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Salah satu ayat<span> </span><a href="https://www.okezone.com/tag/alquran-dan-sains" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #337ab7; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;">Alquran<span> </span></a>mengungkap mengenai Bumi yang berguncang. “Jangan (berbuat demikian). Apabila Bumi diguncangkan berturut-turut,” Surah Al-Fajr Ayat 21.</p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #434343; font-family: roboto300; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 300; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 0px 10px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Dari ayat tersebut bisa dijelaskan bahwa ketika kiamat tiba, Bumi akan diguncangkan dengan sangat dahsyat dan bertubi-tubi. Gunung-gunung diangkat dengan satu angkatan, lalu diempaskan, hingga Bumi terbelah.</p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #434343; font-family: roboto300; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 300; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 0px 10px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Isi gunung dimuntahkan hingga seakan perut Bumi menjadi kosong karenanya. Selain gempa tektonik yang membelah Bumi karena patahan-patahan lempeng, letusan gunung yang hebat memuntahkan lahar dan mengisi semua cekungan Bumi.</p><br /><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #434343; font-family: roboto300; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 300; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 0px 10px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Sebagian pakar berpendapat bahwa kiamat kecil tidak hanya menimpa manusia, tetapi juga benda-benda di alam raya. Kehancuran berskala kecil seperti<span> </span><a href="https://www.okezone.com/tag/gempa-bumi" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #337ab7; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;">gempa Bumi</a>, gunung meletus, banjir dan lainnya juga termasuk kiamat kecil.</p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #434343; font-family: roboto300; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 300; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 0px 10px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Yang demikian karena peristiwa ini menimbulkan kerusakan di lokasi kejadian. Kiamat kecil seperti ini adakalanya terjadi karena faktor alamiah yang tidak dapat dihindarkan atau karena perbuatan manusia.</p><br /><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #434343; font-family: roboto300; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 300; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 0px 10px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Bukti sains menunjukkan bahwa lapisan bumi mengandung 20 padatan, yaitu lapisan Litosfir (kedalaman sekira 100 km), lapisan kerak dan selubung (ketebalan 500 hingga 1.000 km), dan 80 persen sisanya adalah air dan magma yang panas.</p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #434343; font-family: roboto300; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 300; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 0px 10px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Lapisan padat atau lapisan teratas Bumi bagaikan lempengan tipis yang terapung di atas lapisan magma. Sehingga, lempeng ini akan selalu bergerak dan mengalami berbagai tekanan menghasilkan tabrakan, patahan, getaran maupun guncangan.</p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #434343; font-family: roboto300; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 300; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 0px 10px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Meskipun patahan hanya beberapa sentimeter saja, akan dapat menghasilkan getaran hebat di permukaan Bumi.</p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #191919; font-family: "Open Sans", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 500; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.65em; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 19.2px;"> </span></p><span class="fullpost">
</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-55161039971004527282021-01-12T14:24:00.003-08:002021-01-12T14:29:00.512-08:00Dinamika Pedosfer dan Pengarunya Bagi Kehidupan<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4vhjbaxCXQzMGlqAxwGnTy_6RKoP-PZzLOFaOPRTE_eQ7ylP71k1PNcSxg5d72unhm5txe4qjeALkjnj-AIkGhYGRaMPhLasy7PoOtIcdFQ54tVWaUQ7iYlG-YHS6ABOAoUDGLtW7ah-I/s556/image_2021-01-13_052406.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="370" data-original-width="556" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4vhjbaxCXQzMGlqAxwGnTy_6RKoP-PZzLOFaOPRTE_eQ7ylP71k1PNcSxg5d72unhm5txe4qjeALkjnj-AIkGhYGRaMPhLasy7PoOtIcdFQ54tVWaUQ7iYlG-YHS6ABOAoUDGLtW7ah-I/s320/image_2021-01-13_052406.png" width="320" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><br /></span><span><a name='more'></a></span><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">Tanah (<strong>Pedosfer</strong>) yaitu suatu benda alam yang menempati lapisan kulit bumi yang teratas dan terdiri atas butir tanah, air, udara, sisa tumbuh2an dan hewan, yang merupakan tempat tumbuhnya tanaman.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">Sebagai tempat tumbuhnya tanaman, perananan tanah yaitu sebagai tempat tegaknya tanaman, tempat menyediakan unsur2 makanan, air, dan tempat menyediakan udara bagi pernapasan akar. Kehidupan tanaman sangat ditentukan oleh sifat2 tanah, yang merupakan lingkungan hidup sistem perakarannya.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"> Hal2 yang berhubungan dengan tanah sebagai berikut :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"> <strong>LAPISAN TANAH</strong></span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">Dalam garis besarnya lapisan tanah itu dapat dibagi menjadi empat, yaitu :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><li><strong>Lapisan Tanah Atas.</strong></li></ol><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">Lapisan ini tebalnya antara 10 cm – 30 cm, warnanya cokelat sampai kehitam-hitaman, lebih gembur, yang disebut tanah olah atau tanah pertanian. Di sini hidup dan berkembang biak semua jasad hidup tanah dan merupakan lapisan tanah yang tersubur sebagai tempat hidupnya tanaman. Warna hitam/cokelat dan suburnya tanah disebabkan oleh bunga tanah.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><strong style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">2. Lapisan Tanah Bawah.</strong><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">Lapisan tanah kedua ini tebalnya antara 50 cm – 60 cm, lebih tebal daripada lapisan atas, warnanya kemerah-merahan. Lebih terang atau lebih muda, dan lebih padat. Lapisan tanah ini sering disebut dengan tanah cadas atau tanah keras. Di sini kegiatan jasad hidup berkurang. Tanaman berumur panjang, yang mempunyai akar tunggang yang dalam dapat mencapai lapisan tanah ini.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><strong style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">3. Lapisan Bahan Induk Tanah.</strong><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">Lapisan tanah ketiga ini warnanya kemerah-merahan atau kelabu, keputih-putihan. Lapisan ini dapat pecah dan diubah dengan mudah, tetapi sukar ditembus oleh akar. Di lereng2 gunung lapisan ini sering kelihatan dengan jelas, dimana lapisan di atasnya telah hanyut oleh hujan.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><strong style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">4. Lapisan Batuan Induk.</strong><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">Lapisan yang keempat ini disebut batuan induk. Masih merupakan batuan pejal, belum mengalami proses pemecahan. Inilah merupakan bahan induk tanah yang mengalami perubahan beberapa proses dan memakan waktu yang lama. Di pegunungan2 sering kelihatan, tetapi tumbuh2an tak dapat hidup.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/hal_5.jpg" sl-processed="1" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-165" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEhDFO_NI_tmV3PYAtcC6Dwye0x2k4MawuwGGQxS0G9uO7Ho-aUBGCDW4pDerajYUbCUBIGn_8S1QdqXxdlzN5LIdaCv4aOTRNxOQs4_6z_qvAdvcIW31wNH3PyR3aQic_S1u9sI6yrKnWiigO7iLW8gzYlljmr3Fs3U4T5FetGDcwIkHjWhwwgE3w=s0-d" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="hal_5" /></a><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"> <strong>TERJADINYA TANAH</strong></span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">Tanah terjadi dari batuan induk, kemudian berubah menjadi bahan induk tanah, dan berangsur-angsur menjadi lapisan tanah bawah, yang akhirnya membentuk tanah atas dalam waktu yang lama sekali. Ada beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi terjadinya tanah, yaitu :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><li>Sinar matahari</li><li>Air</li><li>Udara</li><li>Tumbuh-tumbuhan</li><li>Makhluk hidup</li><li>Jasad hidup dalam tanah.</li></ol><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"> <strong>Tingkatan-tingkatan dalam Proses Perubahan Tanah :</strong></span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">1) <strong>Stadium Embrional</strong> : tanah yang masih berupa batuan segar.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">2) <strong>Stadium Yuvernil </strong>: tanah muda remaja yang belum begitu produktif.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">3) <strong>Stadium Veriil </strong>: tanah dewasa yang produktif</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">4) <strong>Stadium Seriil </strong>: tanah sudah tua dan kurang produktif.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><strong> </strong>Macam-macam jenis tanah, yaitu :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><li><strong>Tanah Vulkanis,</strong> yaitu tanah yang berasal dari bahan2 yang dikeluarkan oleh letusan gunung berapi. Tanah ini terdapat banyak di sekitar gunung berapi.</li><li><strong>Tanah Kapur, </strong>yaitu tanah yang tembus air, tanah ini kurang subur, dan banyak terdapat di pegunungan kapur.</li><li><strong>Tanah Laterit, </strong>yaitu tanah vulkanis yang telah kena proses pelarutan karena hujan yang banyak serta suhu yang tinggi, sehingga warnanya dari kelabu berubah menjadi kemerah-merahan.</li><li><strong>Tanah Padzol,</strong> yaitu tanah vulkanis yang terkena hujan banyak, tetapi dengan suhu yang rendah, dan banyak terdapat di daerah pegunungan. Warnaya kekuning-kuningan.</li><li><strong>Tanah Margalit, </strong>yaitu tanah yang terjadi dari batuan yang banyak mengandung kapur dengan pengaruh hujan yang tidak merata sepanjang tahun, sehingga warnanya berubah menjadi hitam.</li><li><strong>Tanah Terrarosa, </strong>yaitu tanah yang terbentuk karena hasil pelarutan batuan kapur, tanah ini banyak ditemukan di dasar2 lembah dan dolina2 pegunungan kapur.</li><li><strong>Tanah Liat, </strong>yaitu jenis tanah yang memiliki butiran2 yang halus, dan bentuknya berupa lempeng sifat dari tanah ini, bila kena air sangat lekat dan jika kering menjadi keras dan pecah2.</li><li><strong>Tanah Napal, </strong>yaitu tanah liat yang tercampur dengan batu kapur.</li><li><strong>Tanah Kaolin, </strong>yaitu jenis tanah liat yang baik untuk membuat barang2 keramik.</li><li><strong>Tanah Rawang (organosol),</strong> yaitu tanah yang terbentuk dari sisa tumbuh2an dan terdapat di daerah yang berpaya-paya dan selalu tergenang air.</li><li><strong>Tanah Padas, </strong>yaitu tanah yang padat, akibat mineral2 yang dikeluarkan oleh air dari lapisan bagian atas tanah.</li><li><strong>Tanah Aluvival, </strong>yaitu tanah yang berasal dari endapan lumpur yang dibawa melalui sungai2. Tanah ini bersifat subur sehingga baik untuk pertanian.</li><li><strong>Tanah Pasir, </strong>yaitu tanah yang berasal dari batu pasir yang telah melapuk. Tanah ini sangat miskin dan kadar air di dalamnya sangat sedikit. Tanah pasir yang terdapat di pantai2 pasir disebut <strong>sand dune. </strong>Contohnya pantai parangtirtis, Yogyakarta.</li><li><strong>Tanah Humus (Bunga Tanah), </strong>yaitu tanah yang terjadi dari tumbuh2an yang telah membusuk. Tanah yang mengandung humus bersifat sangat subur dan umumnya berwarna hitam.</li><li><strong>Tanah Lempung (debu), </strong>Yaitu tanah yang tidak mudah merembaskan air. Tanah lempung lebih berat daripada tanah pasir, tetapi lebih ringan daripada tanah liat. Butir2nya lebih halus daripada tanah pasir, tetapai lebih longgar daripada tanah liat.</li></ol><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/komposisi-tanah.jpg" sl-processed="1" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-170" height="481" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEhoL3PPdZBMJkJS2qm_YGoJJ08h1rnYv3_ysGhF3-m4uEae0crWvWikMdsfL9CNNPot_FFYxSEs0DIofP9n8lNt2D3nngbLJcEM63PR5w9aDuG7DEcqxoZuRf4WKjbDZ83JRuZ-YT8ETNWYWty0lolg7tMLbnTKELiVFuWlksnCpGPVgmgyquYQhPOK2moaRVQXxJvOccFHoUk=s0-d" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Komposisi Tanah" width="530" /></a><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"> <strong>SIFAT-SIFAT TANAH</strong></span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">Memperhatikan dari sifat2 tanah sangat penting sekali, terutama bila tanah itu akan digunakan sebagai areal tumbuhnya tumbuh2an. Sifat2 yang penting dari tanah terdiri atas unsur :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><li><strong>Warna Tanah</strong></li></ol><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">Warna tanah dipengaruhi oleh kandungan organik atau kimiawi. Pada umumnya tanah yang banyak kandungan organiknya akan berwarna gelap, dan memiliki tingkat kesuburan yang cukup tinggi.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><strong style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">2. Tekstur Tanah.</strong><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">Yang dimaksud dengan tekstur tanah yaitu besar kecilnya butiran2 tanah, dimana tekstur ini dapat kita bedakan jadi 3 kelas yaitu tanah pasir, lempung dan tanah liat. Tekstur tanah yang baik adalah tanah lempung dengan perbandingan antara pasir, debu dan tanah liat harus sama, sehingga tanah tidak terlalu lepas dan tidak terlalu lekat.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/tekstur-tanah.jpg" sl-processed="1" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-171" height="327" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEjR3hio1e5dxLbQSTw8xvwrWEQndIIr8ywfoOxW0cL13xryx0ZvgaYYrm9cIu5V8PcuL5bFijFz5aZYXGz3fNz6j8Vba_HOWERxqwW5cIVkZDPB_SpWUsH4li0nVBMHsI3h08aWw35g4EK5zGFmTB9Ct_0Yghc5aaO_fiojqclQgzzKpPUlwMjIFbB6d2mGTYDuE7X9ONi-=s0-d" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Tekstur Tanah" width="530" /></a><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><strong style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">3. Struktur Tanah.</strong><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">Yang dimaksud dengan struktur tanah yaitu susunan dari butiran2 tanah, dimana struktur ini dapat kita bedakan menjadi 3 macam yaitu struktur lepas butir, struktur remah, dan struktur gumpal. Tanah dikatakan memiliki struktur lepas butir, bila butir2 tanah letaknya berderai atau terlepas satu sama lainnya, sedangkan tanah berstruktur remah bila butir2 tanah berkumpul membentuk semacam kerak roti. Dan struktur remah merupakan struktru tanah yang paling baik untuk dijadikan sebagai tanah pertanian. Tanah yang berstruktur gumpal ditandai dengan butir2 tanah melekat sangat rapat satu sama lain.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><strong style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">4. Derajat Keasaman ( <em>pH </em>) Tanah.</strong><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">Bila dilihat dari derajat keasamannya, tanah ada yang bersifat asam, dan ada yang alkalis/basa serta ada yang bersifat netral. Keasaman ini bisa terjadi karena tanah selalu tergenang air. Dan umumnya akar tanaman akan rusak bila tanah terlalu asam maupun terlalu basa. Umumnya tanaman memerlukan pH tanah yang netral.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;">Dipermukaan bumi, lahan atau tanah mempunyai kemampuan yang berbeda-beda. Perbedaan tersebut disebabkan oleh beberapa hal, antara lain :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><li>Tekstur tanah</li><li>Permeabilitas tanah</li><li>Ketebalan atau solum tanah</li><li>Kemiringan lereng</li><li>Tingkat erosi</li><li>Penyaluran air.</li></ol><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"> Berkenaan dengan warna pada tanah yang berbeda-beda, maka adapun asal-usul dari warna2 tersebut adalah sebagai berikut :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><li><em>Kuning,</em>berasal dari mineral limonit (2Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>3H<sub>3</sub>O).</li><li><em>Cokelat, </em>berasal dari bahan 2 organis asam yang lapuk sebagian.</li><li><em>Putih, </em>berasal dari mineral2 silika-kuarsa (SiO<sub>2</sub>), kapur (CaCO<sub>3</sub>), kaolin, bauksit, aluminium dan silikat, gypsum (CaCO<sub>4</sub>2H<sub>2</sub>O), nitrat, garam2 yang sudah larut serta koloida2 organis tertentu.</li><li><em>Hitam, </em>berasal dari bahan2 organis yang telah terurai dengan hebat, dan biasanya ada hubungannya dengan unsur2 karbon (C), magnesium (Mg), serta beleran (S).</li><li><em>Merah, </em>berasal dari mineral hematite (Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) atau turgit (2Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>H<sub>2</sub>O).</li><li><em>Hijau, </em>berasal dari oksida ferrous.</li><li><em>Biru, </em>berasal dari mineral lilianit.</li></ol><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"> Untuk menjaga kesuburan tanah dan mengurangi dampak erosi terhadap tanah, maka dapat dilakukan beberapa langkah berikut :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><li><strong>Terassering, </strong>yaitu menanam tanaman dengan sistem berteras-teras untuk mencegah erosi tanah</li><li><strong>Contour Farming, </strong>yaitu menanami lahan menurut garis kontur, sehingga perakaran dapat menahan tanah.</li><li><strong>Pemupukan</strong></li><li><strong>Pembuatan Tanggul Pasangan </strong>untuk menahan hasil erosi.</li><li><strong>Contour Plowing, </strong>yaitu membajak searah garis kontur sehingga terjadilah alur2 horisontal.</li><li><strong>Contour Strip Cropping, </strong>yaitu bercocok tanam dengan cara membagi bidang2 tanah itu dalam bentuk sempit dan memanjang dengan mengikuti garis kontur sehingga bentuknya berbelok-belok.</li><li><strong>Crop Rotation, </strong>yaitu usaha pergantian jenis tanaman supaya tanah tidak kehabisan salah satu unsur hara akibat diisap terus oleh salah satu jenis tanaman.</li><li><strong>Reboisasi, </strong>yaitu menanami kembali hutan2 yang gundul.</li><li><strong>Drainase, </strong>yaitu pengaturan sirkulasi air untuk kesuburan tanah.</li></ol><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/bertanam-selang-seling.jpg" sl-processed="1" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-172" height="327" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEhIHB1hBjJx5iuTwqy_RmrcJD1UDrOFGoRp60aPW6SZ7dQBGTQepNlZOaT9DYy1yYg2qrK1BessearB7KlCo9wRvBLt39BCw9m2qDAr1i2j-UdnDw6JCnqB4bvDaIfeahs20hqHu-tpHjA_fecaFDWVdYm9t_Q-dAhHSFkHN2745FMy537a5GoTjd5sxdPHI5omB1vE7BVqb93CdjR1eKd6=s0-d" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Bertanam Selang-Seling" width="530" /></a><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><strong> </strong></span><a href="http://geoenviron.blogspot.com/2013/01/jenis-jenis-tanah.html" style="color: #307e01; display: inline; font-family: Arial; font-size: 26px; text-decoration-line: none;">JENIS-JENIS TANAH</a><div class="post-header-line-1" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px;"></div><div class="post-body entry-content" style="background-color: white; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px 30px 0px; text-align: justify;"><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center; unicode-bidi: embed;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJX9SSUIOLTZfaDDltj6vti76cuKreB7mOPDKj2d5eFETZxfOvTINmue3W3faQQ6OjXXwPjSZZUIIRE1EihdUfCwGiM8sE_NEaPPBVoZpFWHEQ35SEmjpRsG-l-n7cXUETICcnnS-ibvSc/s1600/1.jpeg" style="color: #307e01; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJX9SSUIOLTZfaDDltj6vti76cuKreB7mOPDKj2d5eFETZxfOvTINmue3W3faQQ6OjXXwPjSZZUIIRE1EihdUfCwGiM8sE_NEaPPBVoZpFWHEQ35SEmjpRsG-l-n7cXUETICcnnS-ibvSc/s1600/1.jpeg" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; padding: 7px;" /></a></div><a name="more" style="color: #307e01;"></a><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #7f6000; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></span><span style="color: #fc7b79; font-family: Calibri; font-weight: bold;"></span></span></div><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><br /><div style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Verdana; font-weight: bold;">TANAH PODZOL/ANDOSOL</span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiCsxDBkqGr-p8Wnd3MIWWX6ZydOrDTBfPpo_j_kgGLuYPeA-u3vSDdFQjK-7F7vCYH6ru7038VSgMTFiF-oONhVOwD_0Av56LwKc_8UjqJTfbR839qIQVqaKFFZppXklQXrgU3UsTSOsRl/s1600/tanah+podzol.jpg" style="clear: right; color: #307e01; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiCsxDBkqGr-p8Wnd3MIWWX6ZydOrDTBfPpo_j_kgGLuYPeA-u3vSDdFQjK-7F7vCYH6ru7038VSgMTFiF-oONhVOwD_0Av56LwKc_8UjqJTfbR839qIQVqaKFFZppXklQXrgU3UsTSOsRl/s1600/tanah+podzol.jpg" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; padding: 7px;" /></a></div><br /><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #f07f09; font-family: "Wingdings 2";"> </span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">Tanah yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">terjadi</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">karena</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">rendahnya</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">pengaruh</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dari</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">luar</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">curah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">hujan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tinggi.Sifatnya</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">mudah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">basah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">jika</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">terkena</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">air,warnanya</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">kuning</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">kuning</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">kelabu</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><br /><div style="color: #b45f06; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"></span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana;">TANAH LATERIT</span></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGdQ9rFAdjEOykY3iiEHsZbWbCokhCZvHwHXKr63_0Yz4i1l8F0hhXpbmLoe5WLBXApiwQlhbQ7kPxfwQA-zxGBNrwXuwuIu7AHuITpaylvX3CM84KyNG05fR3bZfjNk3YsfTIuAYTWpMi/s1600/tanah+laterit.jpg" style="color: #307e01; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><img border="0" height="216" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGdQ9rFAdjEOykY3iiEHsZbWbCokhCZvHwHXKr63_0Yz4i1l8F0hhXpbmLoe5WLBXApiwQlhbQ7kPxfwQA-zxGBNrwXuwuIu7AHuITpaylvX3CM84KyNG05fR3bZfjNk3YsfTIuAYTWpMi/s320/tanah+laterit.jpg" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; padding: 7px;" width="320" /></a></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #f07f09; font-family: "Wingdings 2";"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">Tanah yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">terjasi</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">karena</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">suhu</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">udara</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tinggi</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">curah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">hujan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tinggi.Akibatnya</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">berbagai</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> mineral yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dibituhkan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">oleh</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tumbuh-tumbuhan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">larut</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">meninggalkan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">sisa</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">oksida</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">besi</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">alumunium</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: center;"></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b style="color: #b45f06;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"></span><span style="font-family: Verdana;">TANAH HUMUS</span></b></span></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9TJ3V8iAZMSGic_Il30qrssvXKDJaSCGpJBLoOrq7THBEwNXgaC2tCf04k-uPMEmf2hYLhRwbBJsxk4L54dqU8oY73HuvPqCZdYIPpT3KalxuHRf4wsCJHat9F8Sk3nFiYkQXw__v_DJC/s1600/Tanah+humus.jpg" style="clear: left; color: #307e01; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9TJ3V8iAZMSGic_Il30qrssvXKDJaSCGpJBLoOrq7THBEwNXgaC2tCf04k-uPMEmf2hYLhRwbBJsxk4L54dqU8oY73HuvPqCZdYIPpT3KalxuHRf4wsCJHat9F8Sk3nFiYkQXw__v_DJC/s1600/Tanah+humus.jpg" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; padding: 7px;" /></a><span style="font-size: medium;"><b style="color: #b45f06;"><span style="font-family: Verdana;"> </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #f07f09; font-family: "Wingdings 2";"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">Tanah </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">hasil</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">pelapukan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tumbuh-tumbuhan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> (</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">badan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">organik</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">).Tanah humus </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">sangat</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">subur,cocok</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">untuk</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">lahan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">pertanian</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">, </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">warnanya</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">kehitaman</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><br /><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b style="color: #b45f06;"><span style="font-family: Verdana;">TANAH VULKANIS</span></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihRvFDd2kLAlNCovJS90y_JvKJcGZVpmHYfJAw0WYJNLXEhPwscIAFjdcCOagqZNSeyhZprJgnzcRKAh13D4MKca05SGGYQHGDiWbwnuWph5pj8Y4upShLHQdibHUkWwP9VjI_wYp_WAfv/s1600/Tanah+Vulkanik.jpg" style="clear: right; color: #307e01; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihRvFDd2kLAlNCovJS90y_JvKJcGZVpmHYfJAw0WYJNLXEhPwscIAFjdcCOagqZNSeyhZprJgnzcRKAh13D4MKca05SGGYQHGDiWbwnuWph5pj8Y4upShLHQdibHUkWwP9VjI_wYp_WAfv/s320/Tanah+Vulkanik.jpg" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; padding: 7px;" width="320" /></a><span style="font-size: medium;"><b style="color: #b45f06;"><span style="font-family: Verdana;"></span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #f07f09; font-family: "Wingdings 2";"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">Tanah </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">hasil</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">pelapukan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">bahan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">padat</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">bahan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">cair</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dikeluarkan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">oleh</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">gunung</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">berapi. Tanah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">vulkanis</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tergolong</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">sangat</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">subur</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">sehingga</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">banyak</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">daerah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">pertanian</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">diusahakan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">di</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">daerah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">vulkanis</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><br /><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b><span style="color: #b45f06;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"></span></span><span style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Verdana;">TANAH PADAS</span></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiP2kCzqtlmWYfBT0snThOxQdq89jT6pEsAsfDNLZtmwARAPpbheE5TKPNUvYf0b2RCI1Qc_zpjeSinz8Jv2BJEYxRcnheRBd-zIKWUSd44_06Az0nHjOcAB3fhBVHRBZp9O5xsWTLduY18/s1600/tanah+padas.jpg" style="color: #307e01; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><img border="0" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiP2kCzqtlmWYfBT0snThOxQdq89jT6pEsAsfDNLZtmwARAPpbheE5TKPNUvYf0b2RCI1Qc_zpjeSinz8Jv2BJEYxRcnheRBd-zIKWUSd44_06Az0nHjOcAB3fhBVHRBZp9O5xsWTLduY18/s320/tanah+padas.jpg" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; padding: 7px;" width="320" /></a><span style="font-size: medium;"><b><span style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Verdana;"></span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #f07f09; font-family: "Wingdings 2";"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">Jenis</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tanah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> yang padat. Hal </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">ini</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">disebabkan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> mineral </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">di</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dalamnya</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dikeluarkan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">oleh</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> air yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">terdapat</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">di</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">lapisan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tanah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">sebelah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">atasnya</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><br /><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #b45f06;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"></span></span><b><span style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Verdana;">TANAH ENDAPAN/ALUVIAL</span></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCgkQDXldNw2SKgrWHu745JON8dmxs29bqHFMGLfembZGSH_znYml3wBZ846DF9nCsGyvEW8NH0-Cq2iHAXDc6YuyNRMc4I_XEwTshUNZRk7Ju0Ti2QJPtv3rXm8vH6sjcVMtXdR8Q6mnG/s1600/tanah+Aluvial%252C.jpg" style="color: #307e01; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCgkQDXldNw2SKgrWHu745JON8dmxs29bqHFMGLfembZGSH_znYml3wBZ846DF9nCsGyvEW8NH0-Cq2iHAXDc6YuyNRMc4I_XEwTshUNZRk7Ju0Ti2QJPtv3rXm8vH6sjcVMtXdR8Q6mnG/s320/tanah+Aluvial%252C.jpg" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; padding: 7px;" width="320" /></a></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b><span style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Verdana;"></span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: #f07f09; font-family: "Wingdings 2";"></span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">Tanah yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">terjadi</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">akibat</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">pengendapan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">batuan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">induk</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">telah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">mengalami</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">proses</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">pelarutan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">pada</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">umumnya</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">merupakan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tanah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">subur</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><div style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></b></div><div style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px;"></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b style="color: #b45f06;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"></span><span style="font-family: Verdana;">TANAH TERORESA</span></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh92qimkjmDlKdcLmLfSXTFzDUPPHIjrrolk-9WYt2PzWj5U2taJlQnLsiZjKmqRRY0QfsmJZioG9ixxK8MLVWdEUcIfCJS8Lb87u9s0vA6DWdkJDA21ZgOLe88-UWmw8uwFpO5sSyXRdjQ/s1600/Tanah+Terrarosa..jpg" style="color: #307e01; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><img border="0" height="210" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh92qimkjmDlKdcLmLfSXTFzDUPPHIjrrolk-9WYt2PzWj5U2taJlQnLsiZjKmqRRY0QfsmJZioG9ixxK8MLVWdEUcIfCJS8Lb87u9s0vA6DWdkJDA21ZgOLe88-UWmw8uwFpO5sSyXRdjQ/s320/Tanah+Terrarosa..jpg" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; padding: 7px;" width="320" /></a><span style="font-size: medium;"><b style="color: #b45f06;"><span style="font-family: Verdana;"></span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #f07f09; font-family: "Wingdings 2";"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">Tanah yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">terbentuknya</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dari</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">pelapukan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">batuan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">kapur. Tanah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">jenis</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">ini</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">banyak</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">terdapat</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">didasar</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">doliuna</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">merupakan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tanah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">pertanian</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">subur</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">di</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">daerah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">kapur</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><br /><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b style="color: #b45f06;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"></span><span style="font-family: Verdana;">TANAH MERGEL/MARBALIT</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEir-cap1SfPOYs0zHKxnHfvRbrbY1m0eVD96s6c12B1NxMVJZ9FEvN5u1xg6BIBDpzmY6-zXRDmmZSHma8ze1umwt9OS3csYvFOBBsfjokv6ENozM1SmJcSULyfiq-uJCbBPV_6brA0j9T8/s1600/Tanah+Mergel..jpg" style="clear: left; color: #307e01; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><img border="0" height="212" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEir-cap1SfPOYs0zHKxnHfvRbrbY1m0eVD96s6c12B1NxMVJZ9FEvN5u1xg6BIBDpzmY6-zXRDmmZSHma8ze1umwt9OS3csYvFOBBsfjokv6ENozM1SmJcSULyfiq-uJCbBPV_6brA0j9T8/s320/Tanah+Mergel..jpg" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; padding: 7px;" width="320" /></a><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #f07f09; font-family: "Wingdings 2";"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">Tanah yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">terbentuk</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dari</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">campuran</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">batuan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">kapur,pasir,dan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tanah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">liat.pembentukan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tanah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">margel</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dipengaruhi</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">oleh</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">hujan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tidak</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">merata</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">sepanjang</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tahun</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><br /><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b><span style="color: #b45f06;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"></span></span><span style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Verdana;">TANAH KAPUR/MEDITERAN</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjcnoruLPEDn76fi8eNH6FuFGe40HdtS0xevljngg7e3aJH7r8zSjGc9ko8bb9DpmtSM1dLwD632mH9uftQVbV-ZpaB9bN90Nt6CXr2qgWm9P6EzwJ7qXeJXqMm-SfZJYSwh1P-tfOByq4m/s1600/Tanah+Kapur..jpg" style="clear: left; color: #307e01; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjcnoruLPEDn76fi8eNH6FuFGe40HdtS0xevljngg7e3aJH7r8zSjGc9ko8bb9DpmtSM1dLwD632mH9uftQVbV-ZpaB9bN90Nt6CXr2qgWm9P6EzwJ7qXeJXqMm-SfZJYSwh1P-tfOByq4m/s1600/Tanah+Kapur..jpg" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; padding: 7px;" /></a></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #f07f09; font-family: "Wingdings 2";"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">Tanah yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">terjadi</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dari</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">bahan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">induk</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">kapur</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> (</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">batu</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">endapan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">) </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">telah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">mengalami</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">laterisasi</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">lemah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><br /><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #f07f09; font-family: "Wingdings 2";"></span><b style="color: #b45f06;"><span style="font-family: Verdana;">TANAH PASIR/REGOSOL</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-vmSNjJ2w7VrIxu5v8msQFvUyhJ9rCFpk3h4YmpcwM5im_5z9ImJeb2Aq1Kf68DFNH_Do7gboeKD_u2Ks-03TGS-SiQHTsMFbbH_al0I1hENG8lvtf8ghyphenhyphenbrOKn2bmN-sL45X6mljqsgC/s1600/TANAH+PASIR..jpg" style="clear: right; color: #307e01; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-vmSNjJ2w7VrIxu5v8msQFvUyhJ9rCFpk3h4YmpcwM5im_5z9ImJeb2Aq1Kf68DFNH_Do7gboeKD_u2Ks-03TGS-SiQHTsMFbbH_al0I1hENG8lvtf8ghyphenhyphenbrOKn2bmN-sL45X6mljqsgC/s1600/TANAH+PASIR..jpg" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; padding: 7px;" /></a></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #f07f09; font-family: "Wingdings 2";"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">Tanah </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">hasil</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">pelapukan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">batuan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">beku</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">sedimen</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tidak</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">berstruktur.Tanah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">pasir</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">kurang</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">baik</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">untuk</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">pertanian</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">karena</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">sedikit</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">mengandung</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">bahan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">organik</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><div style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></b></div><div style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px;"></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b style="color: #b45f06;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"></span></b><b style="color: #b45f06;"><span style="font-family: Verdana;">TANAH GAMBUT</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiI8PczFj6PB9X1fM13a5Jzpeisn8RZ9z2sSiZLfLix9YgvXrGGHau7Ryw4ZwmcQmlH8xMM7qy35HjXRR1afNdQ8MCuZam2e9T2ols76fMo5TnGN_8Xt98RR-vVjXKL0PkwJgOirjdkyV9J/s1600/tanah+gambut.jpg" style="clear: left; color: #307e01; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiI8PczFj6PB9X1fM13a5Jzpeisn8RZ9z2sSiZLfLix9YgvXrGGHau7Ryw4ZwmcQmlH8xMM7qy35HjXRR1afNdQ8MCuZam2e9T2ols76fMo5TnGN_8Xt98RR-vVjXKL0PkwJgOirjdkyV9J/s1600/tanah+gambut.jpg" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231); border-width: 0px; padding: 7px;" /></a></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #f07f09; font-family: "Wingdings 2";"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">Tanah yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">berasal</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dari</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">bahan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">organik</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> yang </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">selalu</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tergenang</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> air (</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">rawa</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">).</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">Karena</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">kekurangan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">unsur</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">hara</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">dan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">perbedaan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">udara</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">didalamnya</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tidak</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">lancar</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">maka</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">proses</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">penghancuran</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tanah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">tidak</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;">sempurna</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"></span></span></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="color: #333333; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.29in; margin-top: 2.5pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.29in; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana;"><br /></span></span></div><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><div class="post-body entry-content" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 5px 30px 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><br /></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><div class="sharepost" style="margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px; overflow: hidden; text-align: center;"><div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">Pengertian Ilmu Tanah <em style="box-sizing: inherit;">(soil sciences)</em></span></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Ilmu tanah adalah pengkajian terhadap tanah sebagai sumber daya alam<a href="http://./" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #6636cc; font-weight: 700; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;">.</a> Dalam ilmu ini dipelajari berbagai aspek tentang tanah, seperti pembentukan, klasifikasi, pemetaan, berbagai karakteristik fisik, kimiawi, biologis, kesuburannya, sekaligus mengenai pemanfaatan dan pengelolaannya. Tanah adalah lapisan yang menyeliputi bumi antara litosfer (batuan yang membentuk kerak bumi) dan atmosfer. Tanah menjadi tempat tumbuh tumbuhan dan mendukung kehidupan hewan dan manusia.<br style="box-sizing: inherit;" /><span id="more-327" style="box-sizing: inherit;"></span><br style="box-sizing: inherit;" /><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;"> B. Unsur Hara Tanah <em style="box-sizing: inherit;">(soil nutrient)</em></span><br style="box-sizing: inherit;" />Unsur hara tanah merupakan kadar organik di dalam tanah yang berupa mineral-mineral yang berpengaruh terhadap tingkat kesuburan tanah. <span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;"><em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> </em></span>Kadar organik di dalam tanah, khususnya di lapisan tanah atas, dipengaruhi oleh iklim, sifat-sifat tanah, vegetasi, dan hubungan antara tanah dan air. Sumber bahan organik dalam tanah antara lain berasal dari sisa-sisa tanaman yang telah mati, hewan dan jasad hidup tanah, kotoran dan lendir-lendir jasad hidup dalam tanah, serta adanya upaya pemupukan dengan pupuk kompos, pupuk kandang maupun pupuk hijau.</p><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">C. Tekstur Tanah</span></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Tekstur tanah menyatakan kasar halusnya tanah atau menunjukkan fraksi-fraksi lempung, debu, dan pasir. Cara penetapan tekstur tanah ada dua, yaitu cara kualitatif (di lapangan) dan cara kuantitatif (di laboratorium). Cara kualitatif dengan cara sederhana yaitu segumpal tanah sebesar kelereng diremas diantara ibu jari dan jari lainnya dalam keadaan basah, maka akan terasa apakah bertekstur pasir (kasar), lempung (liat), atau debu (lembut.)<br style="box-sizing: inherit;" />Cara kuantitatif dengan memasukkan tanah ke dalam tabung ukur yang telah diisi larutan HCL, kemudian tanah di dalamnya dihancurkan, di aduk sampai halus dan di diamkan selama semalam, maka pada pagi hari sudah tersusun pembagian tekstur antara debu (paling atas), liat (tengah), dan pasir (paling bawah).</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">D. <em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> </em>Struktur tanah </span><br style="box-sizing: inherit;" />Struktur tanah yaitu sifat fisik tanah yang menyatakan cara terikat butir tanah yang satu dengan yang lain. Pengklasifikasian dilakukan pada waktu pengamatan morfologi tanah dengan membedakan bentuk dan susunan agregat tanah. Diklasifikasikan menjadi ; granuler (kersai), lempung, gumpal, tiang, remah, butir tunggal, dan masif.</p><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">E. Konsistensi tanah</span></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Konsistensi tanah yaitu sifat fisik tanah yang menyatakan derajat <em style="box-sizing: inherit;">kohesi</em> dan <em style="box-sizing: inherit;">adhesi</em> diantara fraksi-fraksi tanah atau daya massa tanah terhadap gaya-gaya yang menyebabkan perubahan bentuk. Gaya tersebut misalnya pengolahan.Cara pengukuran tingkat konsistensi tanah dengan dua cara, cara kualitatif dengan memijat tanah di antara ibu jari dan jari telunjuk untuk melihat penampang tanah, sedangkan cara kuantitatif dengan menggunakan alat <em style="box-sizing: inherit;">penetrometer</em>.</p><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">F. Warna tanah</span></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Warna tanah dipengaruhi oleh beberapa faktor, diantaranya kadar bahan organik, kadar mineral, kadar lengas, dan tingkat drainase tanah. Tanah dengan kadar bahan organik tinggi ditandai oleh warna tanah gelap. Tanah yang memiliki kadar mineral-mineral feldspar, kaolin, kalsit, dan kuarsa menjadikan warna tanah putih, sedangkan kandungan mineral-mineral besi, <em style="box-sizing: inherit;">hematit, magnetit, limonit </em>memberikan warna tanah merah, cokelat, atau kuning. Warna tanah dapat ditentukan dengan melihat buku ukuran warna standar berjudul “<em style="box-sizing: inherit;">Munsell Soil Color Chart”.</em><br style="box-sizing: inherit;" /><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;"><br style="box-sizing: inherit;" /></span><br style="box-sizing: inherit;" /><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">G. Reaksi tanah</span><br style="box-sizing: inherit;" />Reaksi tanah ialah derajat keasaman tanah yang terdapat di larutan tanah. Tinggi rendahnya nilai reaksi/ derajat keasaman <em style="box-sizing: inherit;">(pH) </em>dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor pembentuk tanah, selain juga adanya pengaruh keadaan musim, tindakan cocok tanam, tempat pengambilan sampel analisis, kadar air pada pengambilan sampel<em style="box-sizing: inherit;">, </em>dan cara pengukuran tanah.<em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> </em><br style="box-sizing: inherit;" />Cara penetapan<em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> pH </em>tanah melalui dua cara, secara<em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> kalorimetri, </em>dengan menggunakan indikator<em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> pH </em>dan<em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> H2O </em>atau<em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> KCL IN</em>sebagai larutan. dengan perbandingan volume tanah 1 : larutan<em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> KCL </em>atau<em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> </em><em style="box-sizing: inherit;">H2O </em>volume 2,5. Kedua secara<em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> elektronik,</em>dengan menggunakan alat<em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> pH meter, anode </em>dan<em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> katode </em>dicelupkan ke dalam larutan tanah.<br style="box-sizing: inherit;" />Nilai<em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> pH </em>tanah menunjukkan banyaknya konsentrasi ion<em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> H+</em> di dalam tanah. Makin tinggi kadar ion<em style="box-sizing: inherit;"> H+ </em>di dalam tanah, tanah makin bersifat asam.<em style="box-sizing: inherit;"><br style="box-sizing: inherit;" /></em><br style="box-sizing: inherit;" /><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;"><br style="box-sizing: inherit;" /></span><br style="box-sizing: inherit;" /><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">H. Morfologi Tanah</span><br style="box-sizing: inherit;" />Untuk melihat morfologi tanah dapat dilakukan dengan cara memotong tubuh tanah dengan tegak dari permukaan hingga kedalaman tertentu sehingga akan tampak lapisan/ horizon-horizon tanah.<br style="box-sizing: inherit;" />Horizon tanah utama tersusun atas beberapa tingkat lapisan, yaitu:</p><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjn3JOhkBYWOyUjBTPXGe5tvT0DHPwvL8KV4ec8aObEoLkLi1ZTZndsewbmdyHA6KyucB_-ez2yDmWm8uLctXspuqPzU7B2UBg-jeGs7G9b4b_68CPiBy4Ae2Z_q0yB49lV4XWD1ZOvCpfw/s320/soil_horizon.jpg" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #6636cc; font-weight: 700; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><img alt="" border="0" height="200" scale="1.5" src="https://i0.wp.com/4.bp.blogspot.com/_YTmJyVbMpe0/S2lC_wIVmcI/AAAAAAAAAQs/pUZCNq9GUSA/s200/soil_horizon.jpg" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/4.bp.blogspot.com/_YTmJyVbMpe0/S2lC_wIVmcI/AAAAAAAAAQs/pUZCNq9GUSA/s200/soil_horizon.jpg?zoom=2 1.5x" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; height: auto; max-width: 100%;" width="174" /></a></div><ul style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin: 0px 0px 0.8em 1.6em; padding: 0px; text-align: start;"><li style="box-sizing: inherit;">Horizon O, merupakan horizon organik. Lapisan tanah ini sebagian besar tersusun atas bahan organik, baik masih hidup maupun yang sudah membusuk. Terbentuk di bagian paling atas, di atas lapisan mineral. Horizon ini berwarna kelam hingga hitam.</li><li style="box-sizing: inherit;">Horizon A, merupakan horizon mineral yang letaknya di bawah horizon O. Tersusun atas zat-zat renik, hewan-hewan tanah, maupun fosil hewan dan tumbuhan yang belum lama mati. warna sedikit kecoklatan.</li><li style="box-sizing: inherit;">Horizon B, merupakan horizon mineral yang ditandai penimbunan basa, lempung besi, aluminium, atau bahan organik yang telah tercuci dari horizon A. Lapisan ini memiliki konsentrasi atau lempung yang terbentuk karena larutnya karbonat atau garam-garam lain. Ciri-ciri umum lapisan ini ialah warna tanah lebih kelam, tekstur lebih halus, dan struktur lebih mampat di bandingkan horizon A di atasnya.</li><li style="box-sizing: inherit;">Horizon C, merupakan horizon mineral yang masih berbentuk bahan induk. Horizon ini kurang dipengaruhi oleh proses perkembangan tanah, dan tidak memperlihatkan ciri-ciri diagnostik horizon A dan B.</li><li style="box-sizing: inherit;">Horizon R merupakan lapisan batuan induk tanah berupa batuan yang masih utuh.</li></ul><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">Klasifikasi Tanah di Indonesia</span></p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Sistem klasifikasi tanah terbaru ini memberikan Penamaan Tanah berdasarkan sifat utama dari tanah tersebut. Menurut Hardjowigeno (1992) terdapat 10 ordo tanah dalam sistem Taksonomi Tanah USDA 1975, yaitu:</p><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">1. Alfisol:</span></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Alfisol_Italy.jpg/300px-Alfisol_Italy.jpg" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #6636cc; font-weight: 700; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><img alt="" border="0" height="200" scale="0" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Alfisol_Italy.jpg/300px-Alfisol_Italy.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; height: auto; max-width: 100%;" width="150" /></a></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Tanah yang termasuk ordo Alfisol merupakan tanah-tanah yang terdapat penimbunan liat di horison bawah (terdapat horison argilik) dan mempunyai kejenuhan basa tinggi yaitu lebih dari 35% pada kedalaman 180 cm dari permukaan tanah. Liat yang tertimbun di horison bawah ini berasal dari horison di atasnya dan tercuci kebawah bersama dengan gerakan air. Padanan dengan sistem klasifikasi yang lama adalah termasuk tanah Mediteran Merah Kuning, Latosol, kadang-kadang juga Podzolik Merah Kuning.</p><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">2. Aridisol:</span></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Aridisol_profile.jpg/250px-Aridisol_profile.jpg" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #6636cc; font-weight: 700; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><img alt="" border="0" height="200" scale="0" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Aridisol_profile.jpg/250px-Aridisol_profile.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; height: auto; max-width: 100%;" width="111" /></a></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Tanah yang termasuk ordo Aridisol merupakan tanah-tanah yang mempunyai kelembapan tanah arid (sangat kering). Mempunyai epipedon ochrik, kadang-kadang dengan horison penciri lain. Padanan dengan klasifikasi lama adalah termasuk Desert Soil.</p><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">3. Entisol:</span></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><a href="http://web.utk.edu/~ammonst/Milan4entisol.jpg" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #6636cc; font-weight: 700; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><img alt="" border="0" height="200" src="https://i0.wp.com/web.utk.edu/~ammonst/Milan4entisol.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; height: auto; max-width: 100%;" width="133" /></a></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Tanah yang termasuk ordo Entisol merupakan tanah-tanah yang masih sangat muda yaitu baru tingkat permulaan dalam perkembangan. Tidak ada horison penciri lain kecuali epipedon ochrik, albik atau histik. Kata Ent berarti recent atau baru. Padanan dengan sistem klasifikasi lama adalah termasuk tanah Aluvial atau Regosol.</p><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">4. Histosol:</span></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><a href="http://wpcontent.answcdn.com/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Histisol_profile.jpg/250px-Histisol_profile.jpg" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #6636cc; font-weight: 700; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><img alt="" border="0" height="200" src="https://i1.wp.com/wpcontent.answcdn.com/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Histisol_profile.jpg/250px-Histisol_profile.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; height: auto; max-width: 100%;" width="111" /></a></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Tanah yang termasuk ordo Histosol merupakan tanah-tanah dengan kandungan bahan organik lebih dari 20% (untuk tanah bertekstur pasir) atau lebih dari 30% (untuk tanah bertekstur liat) atau biasa disebut tanah gambut. Lapisan yang mengandung bahan organik tinggi tersebut tebalnya lebih dari 40 cm. Kata Histos berarti jaringan tanaman. Padanan dengan sistem klasifikasi lama adalah termasuk tanah Organik atau Organosol.</p><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">5. Inceptisol:</span></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><a href="http://web.utk.edu/~ammonst/oakridgefootslopepit3.JPG" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #6636cc; font-weight: 700; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><img alt="" border="0" height="200" src="https://i1.wp.com/web.utk.edu/~ammonst/oakridgefootslopepit3.JPG" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; height: auto; max-width: 100%;" width="150" /></a></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Tanah yang termasuk ordo Inceptisol merupakan tanah muda, tetapi lebih berkembang daripada Entisol. Kata Inceptisol berasal dari kata Inceptum yang berarti permulaan. Umumnya mempunyai horison kambik. Tanah ini belum berkembang lanjut, sehingga kebanyakan dari tanah ini cukup subur. Padanan dengan sistem klasifikasi lama adalah termasuk tanah Aluvial, Andosol, Regosol, Gleihumus, dll.</p><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">6. Mollisol:</span></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><a href="http://lawr.ucdavis.edu/classes/ssc100/images/Minnesota_Mollisol.jpg" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #6636cc; font-weight: 700; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><img alt="" border="0" height="199" scale="1.5" src="https://i2.wp.com/lawr.ucdavis.edu/classes/ssc100/images/Minnesota_Mollisol.jpg" srcset="https://i2.wp.com/lawr.ucdavis.edu/classes/ssc100/images/Minnesota_Mollisol.jpg?zoom=2 1.5x" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; height: auto; max-width: 100%;" width="125" /></a></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Tanah yang termasuk ordo Mollisol merupakan tanah dengan tebal epipedon lebih dari 18 cm yang berwarna hitam (gelap), kandungan bahan organik lebih dari 1%, kejenuhan basa lebih dari 50%. Agregasi tanah baik, sehingga tanah tidak keras bila kering. Kata Mollisol berasal dari kata Mollis yang berarti lunak. Padanan dengan sistem kalsifikasi lama adalah termasuk tanah Chernozem, Brunize4m, Rendzina, dll.</p><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">7. Oxisol:</span></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><a href="http://www.soils.umn.edu/academics/classes/soil2125/img/4oxprf.jpg" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #6636cc; font-weight: 700; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><img alt="" border="0" height="200" src="https://i2.wp.com/www.soils.umn.edu/academics/classes/soil2125/img/4oxprf.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; height: auto; max-width: 100%;" width="133" /></a></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Tanah yang termasuk ordo Oxisol merupakan tanah tua sehingga mineral mudah lapuk tinggal sedikit. Kandungan liat tinggi tetapi tidak aktif sehingga kapasitas tukar kation (KTK) rendah, yaitu kurang dari 16 me/100 g liat. Banyak mengandung oksida-oksida besi atau oksida Al. Berdasarkan pengamatan di lapang, tanah ini menunjukkan batas-batas horison yang tidak jelas. Padanan dengan sistem klasifikasi lama adalah termasuk tanah Latosol (Latosol Merah & Latosol Merah Kuning), Lateritik, atau Podzolik Merah Kuning.</p><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">8. Spodosol:</span></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><a href="http://www.soils.umn.edu/academics/classes/soil2125/img/4odprf.jpg" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #6636cc; font-weight: 700; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><img alt="" border="0" height="200" src="https://i0.wp.com/www.soils.umn.edu/academics/classes/soil2125/img/4odprf.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; height: auto; max-width: 100%;" width="133" /></a></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Tanah yang termasuk ordo Spodosol merupakan tanah dengan horison bawah terjadi penimbunan Fe dan Al-oksida dan humus (horison spodik) sedang, dilapisan atas terdapat horison eluviasi (pencucian) yang berwarna pucat (albic). Padanan dengan sistem klasifikasi lama adalah termasuk tanah Podzol.</p><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">9. Ultisol:</span></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><a href="http://www.soils.umn.edu/academics/classes/soil2125/img/4ultprf.jpg" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #6636cc; font-weight: 700; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><img alt="" border="0" height="200" src="https://i2.wp.com/www.soils.umn.edu/academics/classes/soil2125/img/4ultprf.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; height: auto; max-width: 100%;" width="133" /></a></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Tanah yang termasuk ordo Ultisol merupakan tanah-tanah yang terjadi penimbunan liat di horison bawah, bersifat masam, kejenuhan basa pada kedalaman 180 cm dari permukaan tanah kurang dari 35%. Padanan dengan sistem klasifikasi lama adalah termasuk tanah Podzolik Merah Kuning, Latosol, dan Hidromorf Kelabu.</p><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">10. Vertisol:</span></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"><a href="http://feiraz.files.wordpress.com/2008/11/gbr-tanah001.jpg?w=154&h=300" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #6636cc; font-weight: 700; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><img alt="" border="0" height="200" scale="1.5" src="https://feiraz.files.wordpress.com/2008/11/gbr-tanah001.jpg?w=103&h=200" srcset="https://feiraz.files.wordpress.com/2008/11/gbr-tanah001.jpg?w=103&h=200&zoom=2 1.5x" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; height: auto; max-width: 100%;" width="103" /></a></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: start;"></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Tanah yang termasuk ordo Vertisol merupakan tanah dengan kandungan liat tinggi (lebih dari 30%) di seluruh horison, mempunyai sifat mengembang dan mengkerut. Kalau kering tanah mengkerut sehingga tanah pecah-pecah dan keras. Kalau basah mengembang dan lengket. Padanan dengan sistem klasifikasi lama adalah termasuk tanah Grumusol atau Margalit.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;">Sumber:</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 18px;">https://geoenviron.wordpress.com/2011/12/23/tanah-dan-klasifikasi-usda/</span></span></p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0.8em 0px; text-align: start;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Karla, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 18px;">https://geoenviron.blogspot.com/2014/01/dinamika-perubahan-litosfer-dan.html</span></span></p></div></div></div></div>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-2225173917982601452021-01-11T22:28:00.001-08:002021-01-11T22:28:22.490-08:00Tenaga Pembentuk Muka Bumi (Seisme) <span style="background-color: white;"><strong> <span style="text-decoration: underline;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJy0KJjbnvNppsOUexNM-EgVlp528w7CMdVwRqEsugglDyzumUeH6Zh8pQMOSuOPg_4C7ELYaOjVBvZBJ4zzonvJ0yg4je4JICKBvmy2hButkVBp1ijNt4R8bYw4W0GoApYQ9zIv_NMqYs/s1124/9.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="632" data-original-width="1124" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJy0KJjbnvNppsOUexNM-EgVlp528w7CMdVwRqEsugglDyzumUeH6Zh8pQMOSuOPg_4C7ELYaOjVBvZBJ4zzonvJ0yg4je4JICKBvmy2hButkVBp1ijNt4R8bYw4W0GoApYQ9zIv_NMqYs/s320/9.png" width="320" /></a></div><br /><span><a name='more'></a></span>Seisme (Gempa Bumi)</span></strong></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Gempa bumi adalah getaran pada
permukaan kulit bumi yang disebabkan oleh kekuatan2 dari dalam bumi.
Timbulnya getaran ini dikarenakan adanya retakan atau dislokasi pada
kulit bumi. Jika terjadinya getaran karena adanya retakan di dasar laut,
yang kemudian merambat melalui air laut, maka terjadilah gempa laut
yang dapat menggoncangkan kapal2 dan menimbulkan gelombang pasang yang
mencapai puluhan meter tingginya. Peristiwa ini disebut dengan <em>tsunami.</em></span><br />
<em><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/gempasu.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-204" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEgFPOLh1epK_0nBW5yGqwXijHRwOAKaywx9bOKdpPyBNi4P_UtWqS0ntUFqvWlxX87QCQfbgjUKzTMVdwsBMc1hyphenhyphenYlTR-lNDW-wMP8U8lw6BwJpQQ88tSgH9iDM1vzTHRw0u4JgozwDpReMv3FOuH4yiqDVbCyOTM5iUGwdaEj8U38yoQYnQ7oS_RzT=s0-d" style="height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; width: auto;" title="gempasu" /></a></em><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Dilihat dari intensitasnya ada 2 macam jenis gempa yaitu :</span><br />
<ol><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Macroseisme, </strong>yaitu gempa yang intensitasnya besar dan dapat diketahui tanpa menggunakan alat.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Microseisme, </strong>yaitu gempa yang intensitasnya kecil sekali dan hanya dpat diketahui dengan menggunkan alat perekam.</span></li></ol>
<span style="background-color: white;"> Hal ikhwal mengenai gempa bumi
perlu diselidiki agar akibat yang ditimbulkannya dapat diramalkan dan
upaya penanggulangannya dapat dilakukan. Ilmu yang mempelajari gempa
bumi, gelombang2 seismik serta perambatannya disebut<em>seismologi.</em></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Dalam kajian seismologi di perluakan berbagai alat. Salah satu alat yang terpenting adalah <em>seismograf</em> atau alat untuk mencatat gempa. Ada 2 macam seismograf, yaitu :</span><br />
<ol><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Seismograf Horizontal, </strong>yaitu seismograf yang mencatat getaran bumi pada arah horizontal.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Seismograf Vertikal, </strong>yaitu seismograf yang mencatat getaran bumi pada arah vertikal.</span></li></ol>
<a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/300px-kinemetrics_seismograph.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-205" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEiys5RbQ4v7FUgi79YnypbEKNR2r-cPuwg4lYoTwaIyH_9NcQ9MvTm7fpTKZYzmmJ5kwpLb3bQsKBYdT94SmaVtcisDxA2IhyU0YDXyIUpPk9U8a4KHMQzvx-8aNTIkCgtQTMQ0WuflT7BnQmkr6P_vxuNe-qaCNyud2ixQROyhJpp8ucQEL0PdFjkmr65_1tC4w2DOoaH1zkZIGWOI00N0xA=s0-d" style="height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; width: auto;" title="300px-Kinemetrics_seismograph" /></a><br />
<strong><em style="background-color: white;">Gambar : Seismograf</em></strong><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Besaran (magnitudo) gempa yang didasarkan pada amplitudo gelombang tektonik dicatat oleh seismograf dengan menggunakan skal <em>Richter.</em> Skala ini ini dibuat oleh<strong>Charles F. Richter </strong>pada tahun 1935.</span><br />
<a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/charles-richter.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-177" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEhZUrvz-7AlOwzsSV0XFe1cxZtid5dA5HU4c_UiD4tGxoAz6tvelluTQOkHiUUMGhX-sNMKRS5PvPmXSwMpjhRt4r0zMdvjDWCMNU-XyPuhlU5Xj71eAuqOhRKWAhSNtHu3esKAt8uc1Mu4Ico4UFGWEUiKWczmQoYa3lgZZadz6Z4L2eHjQwN8udir-qenk_Bv3ms=s0-d" style="height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; width: auto;" title="Charles Richter" /></a><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Sumber gempa di dalam bumi disebut dengan <em>Hiposentrum</em>.
Dari hiposentrum ini di teruskan ke segala arah. Tempat hiposentrum ini
ada yang dalam sekali, dan ada yang dangkal. Di Indonesia terdapat
hiposentrum yang dalamnya lebih dari 500 km, contohnya di bawah laut
Flores ± 720 km.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Pusat gempa pada permukaan kulit bumi di atas hiposentrum disebut dengan<em>Episentrum</em>. Kerusakan yang terbesar terdapat di sekitar episentrum.</span><br />
<a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/episentrum-hiposentrum.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-178" height="247" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEhU46U6AII9J2unfq0qbyW82-lZqUVQHHm4VKF8m3y37oF52GQwtnUbaQfYFAPeDTH8YyKsHwDEESq6U1C_tYP-KDD-P71zUcb3VNVriacdG-N5UO1WdhqKzzFYFvqKun_6t0ZidCsJSIvsj7SLiDt0hZRLK4dq0BUUYJZUMIJY_jmVZKQI3KbPdLm5v7IgC2ttpNawm3LnI9oK4M3L3pfT=s0-d" style="height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; width: auto;" title="Episentrum & Hiposentrum" width="530" /></a><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Daerah2 yang mengalami gempa dapat dibuat peta. Pada peta tersebut ada beberapa macam garis,yaitu :</span><br />
<ol><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Homoseiste, </strong>yaitu garis yang menghubungkan tempat2 yang pada saat yang sama mengalami getaran gempa.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Isoseiste, </strong>yaitu garis yang menghubungkan tempat2 yang dilalui oleh gempa yang sama intensitasnya.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Pleistoseiste, </strong>yaitu garis yang menggelilingi daerah yang mendapat kerusakan terhebat dari gempa bumi.</span></li></ol>
<span style="background-color: white;">Gempa bumi merambat melalui 3 macam getaran, yaitu :</span><br />
<ol><li><strong style="background-color: white;">Getaran Longitudinal (Merapat Merenggang).</strong></li></ol>
<span style="background-color: white;">Getaran ini berasal dari
hiposentrum dan bergerak melalui dalam bumi, kecepatan getarannnya
sangat cepat, hingga mencapai 7 sampai 14 km per jam. Getaran ini
datangnya paling awal da merupakan getaran pendahuluan yang pertama,
itulah sebabnya disebut juga getaran primer. Getaran ini belum
menimbulkan kerusakan.</span><br />
<strong style="background-color: white;">2. Getaran Transversal (Naik-Turun)</strong><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Getaran ini asalnya juga dari
hiposentrum dan bergerak juga melalui dalam bumi. Kecepatan getaran ini
antara 4 sampai 7 km per jam. Getaran ini datang setelah getaran
longitudinal dan merupakan getaran pendahuluan kedua yang disebut
getaran sekunder.</span><br />
<strong style="background-color: white;">3. Getaran Gelombang Panjang.</strong><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Getaran ini asalnya dari
episentrum dan bergerak melalui permukaan bumi. Kecepatan getaran ini
antara 3,8 sampai 3,9 km per jam. Getaran ini datangnya paling akhir,
tetapi merupakan getaran pokok. Getaran ini yang menimbulkan kerusakan.</span><br />
<a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/skala-gempa-menurut-richter.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-179" height="204" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEhCN2FOwDfEGqQURYDkNsXllYS2EM2XfLB7X1YqFuj5FQQOnE6ipY4COtlrsqRS8FG-TS_o3q5ZvudGQf0Qhe6jMDmVhi5Ly0CX4pE0UGVHhuCJd29ocGTiShCyYD4Zs4zS5Y-zIdAN1xVwAQXCLZo4aihyjmFiAMuEeIw5fWG3UDwea92N-t7ywyhA01F6A_GWCAu_fYK0BWNH5Q-HgnoGHXfrQzs=s0-d" style="height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; width: auto;" title="Skala Gempa Menurut Richter" width="530" /></a><br />
<strong style="background-color: white;">KLASIFIKASI GEMPA</strong><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Kita dapat membedakan macam2 gempa bumi berdasarkan :</span><br />
<ol><li><span style="background-color: white;">Hiposentrum gempa atau jarak pusat gempa yaitu :</span></li></ol>
<ul><li><span style="background-color: white;">Gempa Dalam, jika hiposentrumnya terletak antara 300-700 km di bawah permukaan bumi.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Gempa Intermidier, jika hiposentrumnya terletak antara 100-300 km di bawah permukaan bumi.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Gempa Dangkal, jika hiposntrumnya terletak dari 100 km di bawah permukaan bumi.</span></li></ul>
<span style="background-color: white;">2. Atas dasar bentuk episentrumnya, dibedakan :</span><br />
<ul><li><span style="background-color: white;">Gempa Linier, jika episentrumnya berbentuk garis. Contohnya gempa tektonik karena bentuknya bisa berupa daerah patahan.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Gempa Sentral, jika episentrumya berbentuk titik. Contohnya gempa vulkanik atau gempa runtuhan.</span></li></ul>
<span style="background-color: white;">3. Atas dasar letak episentrum gempa, dibedakan atas :</span><br />
<ul><li><span style="background-color: white;">Gempa Laut, jika episentrumnya terletak di dasar laut.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Gempa Daratan, jika episentrumnya di daratan.</span></li></ul>
<span style="background-color: white;">4. Atas dasar jarak episentral, gempa dibedakan atas :</span><br />
<ul><li><span style="background-color: white;">Gempa Setempat, jika jarak tempat gempa terasa sampai ke episentralnya kurang dari 10.000 km.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Gempa Jauh, jika episentral dan tempat gempa terasa berjarak sekitar 10.000 km</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Gempa Sangat Jauh, jika episentral dan tempat gempa terasa lebih dari 10.000 km.</span></li></ul>
<span style="background-color: white;">5. Atas dasar peristiwa yang menyebabkan gempa, dapat dibedakan atas :</span><br />
<ul><li><span style="background-color: white;">Gempa Tektonik atau Gempa
Dislokasi, yaitu gempa yang terjadi setelah terjadinya dislokasi atau
karena gerakan lempeng. Gempa inilah yang dapat berakibat parah,
terutama jika jarak hiposentrumnya dangkal.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Gempa Vulkanik, yaitu gempa yang terjadi sebelum, pada saat dan sesudah peristiwa letusan gunung api.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Gempa Runtuhan, gempa yang
terjadi akibat runtuhya bagian atas litosfer, karena bagian sebelah
dalam bumi berongga. Misalnya gempa di daerah kapur.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Gempa Buatan, yaitu gempa
yang disebabkan oleh perbuatan manusia. Misalnya gempa yang terjadi
akibat ledakan dinamit yg di gunakan untuk membuat gua/lubang untuk
kegunaan penggalian atau pertambangan.</span></li></ul>
<span style="background-color: white;"> Untuk menentukan letak episentrum caranya sebagai berikut :</span><br />
<ol><li><span style="background-color: white;">Dengan menggunakan hasil
pencatatan seismograf. Cara ini dengan menggunakan 3 seismograf, yaitu
satu seismograf vertikal, atu seismograf horizontal yang berarah utara
dan selatan sedang satu lagi seismograf berarah timur dan barat.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Dengan menggunakan 3 tempat
yang terletak satu homoseiste. Cara ini dengan menggunakan seismograf di
3 tempat yang merasakan getaran gempa pada saat yang sama. Pertama-tama
kita hubungkan tempat seismograf yang satu homoseiste. Karena 3
seismograf maka didapat 2 garis. Dua garis itu dibuat garis sumbu,
sehingga episentrum terletak pada pertemuan dua garis sumbu.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Dengan menggunakan 3 tempat yang mencatat jarak episentrum. Untuk menentukan jarak episentrum digunakan rumus Laska :</span></li></ol>
<span style="background-color: white;">∆ = { (S – P ) } – 1′ x 1.000 km</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">∆ = delta = jarak episentrum</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">S – P = selisih waktu pencatatan gelombang primer dengan gelombang sekunder dalam satuan menit.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">1′ = satu menit.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Contoh :</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Gelombang S tiba pada pukul
10.29’44”, sedang gelombang P tiba pada pukul 10.25’14”. berapakah jarak
episentrum sebuah seismograf dari daerah Z ?</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Jawab :</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">{ ( 10.29’44” – 10.25’14” ) } – 1′ x 1.000 km</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">= ( 4 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> – 1′ ) x 1.000 km = 3.500 km.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Sekarang misalnya letak episentrum dari 3 tempat, yaitu Z = 3.500 km, Y= 5.250 km, dan X = 3.750 km.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Maka cara membuatnya :</span><br />
<ol><li><span style="background-color: white;">Dibuat perbandingan skala horizontal 1 cm = 1000 km. maka Z = 3,5 cm, Y = 5,25 cm, X = 3,75 cm.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Buat lingkaran sesuai jari2 Z,Y,X.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Ketiga lingkaran akan berpotongan pada satu titik E (episentrum).</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Dengan menggunakan lingkaran
isoseiste. Dari laporan secara visual dapat dibuat tanda2 pada peta yang
kemudian dapat ditentukan beberapa isoseiste di daerah bencana gempa.
Dengan mengetahui lingkaran atau elips isoseiste itu dari luar kea rah
dalam, dapat ditentukan tempat episentrum.</span></li></ol><p><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><br /><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><br /><span style="background-color: white;">Sumber: </span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;">https://geoenviron.blogspot.com/2012/09/gempa.html</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;">https://geoenviron.blogspot.com/2011/12/semiologi.html</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;">https://geoenviron.blogspot.com/2011/12/daerah-rawan-gempa-bumi-tektonik-di.html</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;">https://geoenviron.blogspot.com/2014/01/dinamika-perubahan-litosfer-dan.html </span><br /><span style="background-color: white;"> <br /></span></p><div><span class="fullpost">
</span></div>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-39538477751196319952021-01-11T15:04:00.003-08:002021-01-11T15:04:33.374-08:00Tenaga Pembentuk Muka Bumi (Vulkanisme)<p><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span></strong></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/gunung_berapi.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-174" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEgfs-RgjxztyiTmLYI71U5zFmwoLGO03h1_bmpyKdiOFdM0-ZTrs-mUDjMpUzbwxTcoA4PaaaXh8QqR8eKaMiVCFQ9GF_zu7MrnyWMtggIl1_lTj-EH8r06u02Xk5pqTmZl4bqlmO3SJlHTZNOejgLEgca9lwzWyKcGj0F96qoeCJijkrCZidim19Q6tkG1Y0jz=s0-d" style="height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; width: auto;" title="Gunung_Berapi" /></a></span></strong></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span></span></span></strong></span></p><a name='more'></a><p></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Vulkanisme</span></strong><strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;"> </span></strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Yang dimaksud dengan vulaknisme
adalah peristiwa yang berhubungan dengan naiknya magma dari dalam perut
bumi. Magma adalah campuran batu2an dalam keadaan cair, liat serta
sangat panas. Aktivitas magma disebabkan oleh tingginya suhu magma dan
banyaknya gas yang terkandung di dalamnya. Magma ini dapat berbentuk
gas, padat dan cair.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> <strong>Intrusi magma,</strong> adalah
aktivitas magma di dalam lapisan litosfera, memotong atau menyisip
litosfer dan tidak mencapai permukaan bumi. Intrusi magma disebut juga<strong>plutonisme. Ekstrusi magma </strong>adalah kegiatan magma yang mencapai permuakaan bumi. Ekstrusi magma merupakan kelanjutan dari intrusi magma.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Dilihat dari bentuk dan terjadinya, ada 3 macam gunung api, yaitu :</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">a) <strong>Gunung Api Maar.</strong></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Bentuknya seperti danau kecil
(danau kawah). Terjadi karena letusan eksplosif. Bahannya terdiri dari
efflata. Contohnya gunung lamongan di Jawa Timur.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">b) <strong>Gunung Api Kerucut (Strato).</strong></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Bentuknya seperti kerucut,
terjadi karena letusan dan lelehan effusif, secara bergantian. Bahannya
berlapis-lapis, sehingga disebut lava gunung api strato. Jenis ini yang
terbanyak terdapat di Indonesia.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">c) <strong>Gunung Api Perisai (Tameng).</strong></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Bentuknya seperti perisai,
terjadi karena lelehan maupun cairan yang keluar dan membentuk lereng
yang sangat landai. Bahan lavanya bersifat cair sekali. Sudut kemiringan
lereng antara 1<sup>o</sup> – 10<sup>o</sup>. contohnya Gunung Maona Loa dan Kilanca di Hawaii.</span><br />
<a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/untitledd.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-166" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEgqGoUxwL8Gaf_rJ7xCEXM9mpRKABW10oqfZkSRD-3AHdjzMwdEUhY84japUhThDComfiZB9pbxP6kugqLeqnEKwREe69BExOTRfttghj3u3XWcikzRJkWazuFCEr_SOzZWdSuadJ6SpNljk8S8xH2DJvnmVUFBuf8xePDogbikqX1w6zUPf21j85L89I8=s0-d" style="height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; width: auto;" title="Untitledd" /></a><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Kuat atau lemahnya ledakan gunung
api tergantung dari : tekanan gas, kedalaman dapur magma, luasnya
sumber/dapur magma, dan sifat magma (cair/kental).</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Menurut aktivitasnya, gunung api dapat dibagi menjadi 3 gologan, yaitu :</span><br />
</p><ol><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Gunung Api Aktif, </strong>yaitu gunung api yang masih bekerja yang kawahnya selalu mengeluarkan asap, gempa, dan letusan. Misalnya gunung Stromboli.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Gunung Api Mati, </strong>yaitu gunung api yang sejak tahun 1600 sudah tidak meletus lagi. Misalnya gunung patuha, gunung sumbing, dan sebagainya.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Gunung Api Istirahat, </strong>yaitu
gunung api yang sewaktu-waktu meletus dan kemudian istirahat kembali,
misalnya gunung ciremai, gunung kelud, dan sebagainya.</span></li></ol>
<a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/sdfsdf.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-168" height="334" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEi7nw49RG-AbYdcVPylkEvG0FBPXP7I2ZX4juxiArWJC5MBbne-wV4C2K6csbQSQoWj0jFCDCJcKDYYbnkFWhUObFzWOGspE_KWAmkGUwbwLFJdy0lYqmct-AGF-w_3stq121ykxnZy_0qYwWSS8wmCibSK0DhIIH-QkPcSAPW3AyY9YQJbm02otA7XJvEWrLY=s0-d" style="height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; width: auto;" title="sdfsdf" width="530" /></a><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><strong> </strong>Bagian2 dari gunung berapi terdiri atas :</span><br />
<ol><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Kaldera, </strong>ialah
kawah kepundan yang amat besar, luas, dan bertebing curam yang ada di
puncak gunung berapi. Kaldera terjadi sewaktu gunung api meletus dengan
hebat dan sebagian dari puncak gunung api itu terbang/gugur ke dalam
pipa kawah.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Saluran Diaterma (Saluran Kepundan), </strong> yaitu lubang besar yang berbentuk pipa panjang dari puncak ke sumber magma tempat mengalirnya magma keluar permuakaan bumi.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Dapur Magma, </strong>yaitu tempat/pusat/sumber dari kumpulan magma yang merupakan panas dari kerak bumi berada.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Sill, </strong>adalah magma yang masuk diantara dua lapisan bahan sedimen dan membeku (intrusi datar).</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Lakolit, </strong>adalah magma yang masuk diantara batuan sedimen dan menekan ke atas sampai bagian atas cembung dan bagian bawah datar.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Batolit, </strong>adalah magma yang menembus lapisan batu2an dan membeku di tengah jalan.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Gang, </strong>yaitu batuan dari intrusi magma yang memotong lapisan batuan yang berbentuk pipih atau lempeng.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Apofisa, </strong>yaitu cabang dari erupsi korok (gang).</span></li></ol>
<a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/gunung-berapi1.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-167" height="370" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEjK1Bj9x9ZoltIj-Abo7VNoJBL1nDuLNzoKd5jYdZf7Ms5uSmth5INu2YcG2fOG4nsSiZL-S1dqvhGDyED8kFbFjcWW1NZ0uTim80XwDQldxCmoRcsuOWax1Fbb1uZh8gZyaJpZA5YgwHEQs_McdWDbSHlssN4TxOrHE5wT0hWd5Q66VO5X4odJhyphenhyphen15VVnWQNEMYkno9J5E2g=s0-d" style="height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; width: auto;" title="gunung-berapi1" width="530" /></a><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><strong> </strong>Bahan2 yang dikeluarkan oleh gunung berapi, antara lain :</span><br />
<ol><li><strong style="background-color: white;">Efflata (Benda Padat).</strong></li></ol>
<span style="background-color: white;">Menuru asalnya efflata dibagi 2 yakni : <em>efflata allogen</em> : berasal dari batu2an sekitar pipa kawah yang ikut terlempar, dan <em>efflata ant</em><em>o</em><em>gen</em><em>: </em>berasal dari magma sendiri atau disebut juga <em>pyroclastic.</em> Menurut ukuran, efflata dibedakan atas : <strong>bom</strong><em> </em>yaitu batu2an besar, <strong>lapili</strong> yaitu batu2an sebesar kacang/kerikil, pasir, debu, dan batu apung.</span><br />
<strong style="background-color: white;">2. Bahan Cair.</strong><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Terdiri atas :</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">a) <strong>Lava, </strong>yaitu magma yang telah sampai di luar.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">b) <strong>Lahar Panas, </strong>berupa lumpur panas mengalir yang terjadi dari magma yang bercampur air.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">c) <strong>Lahar Dingin, </strong>yaitu lumpur magma yang telah mendingin.</span><br />
<strong style="background-color: white;">3. Ekshalasi (Bahan Gas).</strong><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Terdir atas :</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">a) <strong>Solfatar, </strong>yaitu gas belerang (H<sub>2</sub>S) yang keluar dari dalam lubang.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">b) <strong>Fumarol, </strong>yaitu uap air.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">c) <strong>Mofet, </strong>yaitu gas asam arang (CO<sub>2</sub>).</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Gunung merapi yang sedang meletus sangat berbahaya karena mengeluarkan :</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">a) Banjir lahar.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">b) Banjir lava</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">c) Gelombang pasang.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">d) Awan emulsi.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Manfaat2 gunung api, antara lain :</span><br />
<ol><li><span style="background-color: white;">Menyuburkan tanah.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Dapat mendatangkan hujan.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Memperluas daerah pertanian karena semburan dan vulkanik</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Memperbanyak jenis tanaman budi daya.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Menyebabkan letak mineral (barang tambang) dekat dengan permukaan tanah.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Menjadi tempat pariwisata dan sanatorium, karena udaranya yang sejuk.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai pusat pembangkit tenaga listrik (geothermal).</span></li></ol>
<span style="background-color: white;"><strong> </strong>Peristiwa post
vulkanis adalah peristiwa yang terdapat pada gunung berapi yang sudah
mati atau yang telah meletus. Yang termasuk perisitiwa pos vulkanis
adalah :</span><br />
<ol><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Makdani, </strong>adalah
mata air mineral yang biasanya panas. Mata air ini biasanya dapat
dimanfaatkan untuk pengobatan, khususnya penyakit kulit.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Geyser, </strong>adalah
mata air yang memancarkan air panas secara periodik. Ada yang memancar
setiap jam, satu hari, sampai satu minggu. Tinggi pancarannya dapat
mencapai 10 – 100 meter.</span></li></ol>
<span style="background-color: white;"><strong> </strong>Peristiwa
mengalirnya magma keluar permukaan bumi disebut dengan erupsi.
Berdasarkan kekuatan letusannya, erupsi gunung berapi dapat dibedakan
atas 3 jenis yaitu :</span><br />
<ol><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Erupsi Effusif, </strong>yaitu erupsi yang terjadi dengan sangat lemah, tidak menimbulkan ledakan2.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Erupsi Eksplosif, </strong>yaitu erupsi yang erjadi dengan sangat kuat, disertai dengan ledakan2 dahsyat.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Erupsi Campuran, </strong>kekuatan erupsi campuran tidak sekuat erupsi eksplosif, namun lebih kuat dari erupsi effusif.</span></li></ol>
<a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/gb0410.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-175" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEjmzFDc4oG1Z8AdFtZfemD18Vb0KrZqGkty2DQIGv3kuc1pp2o3oayRbcKgcdG6_GoU00Vsm_yHEei4gsM1Jd9hyphenhyphen6OH2vbKcPSKA-osGV_jYVqSa_jlYj4z1MES0H8ufTwtkdsUOkGXqA2Ga_VDBcI9ZACPSQbGyDCOFZZI9w-Tk-eraDNq0DkCQZc=s0-d" style="height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; width: auto;" title="gb0410" /></a><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><strong> </strong>Berdasarkan bentuk dan lokasi dari tempat keluarnya magma, erupsi dapat dibedakan menjadi :</span><br />
<ol><li><strong style="background-color: white;">Erupsi Vent (Erupsi Sentral).</strong></li></ol>
<span style="background-color: white;">Pada erupsi jenis ini, magma keluar melalui pipa kepundan gunung api dan jangka waktu erupsinya pendek.</span><br />
<strong style="background-color: white;">2. Erupsi Linear (Fissure Eruption).</strong><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Erupsi jenis ini tidak melalui lubang kepundan gunung berapi, melainkan keluar meleleh lewat retakan2 kerak bumi.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><strong>3. </strong><strong>Erupsi Areal.</strong></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Yaitu magma keluar melalui lubang
yang besar, karena magma terletak sangat dekat dengan permukaan bumi
sehingga magma menghancurkan dapur magma yang menyebabkan magma meleleh
keluar ke permukaan bumi. Misalnya Yellow Stone National Park di Amerika
Serikat yang luasnya 10.000 km<sup>2</sup>.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Di Indonesia terdapat beberapa deretan pegunungan, yaitu:</span><br />
<ol><li><span style="background-color: white;">Deretan pegunungan Sunda,
yaitu deretan pegunungan yang berjajar dari Pulau Sumatera, Jawa,
Nusatenggara, Maluku Selatan dan berakhir di Pulau Banda.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Deretan Sirkum Australia,
yaitu deretan pegunungan yang berjajar dari Australia, ujung timur Pulau
Irian, masuk melalui bagian tengah Irian dengan puncak tertinggi
Jayawijaya.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Deretan pegunungan Sangihe,
yaitu deretan pegunungan yang membujur dari Kepulauan Sangihe (Sulawesi
Utara), masuk ke Minahasa, Teluk Gorontalo (dengan Gunung Una-Una yang
sering meletus) hingga Sulawesi Selatan.</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Deretan Pegunungan
Halmahera, yaitu deretan pegunungan yang berderet mulai dari Pulau
Talaut, Pulau Maju dan Tifor di Maluku Utara, masuk ke Halmahera serta
Pulau Ternate dan Tidore, berbelok ke timur hingga Kepala Burung</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Deretan Pegunungan Kalimantan, deretan ini bermula dari Pulau Palawan (Filipina) kemudian masuk ke Kalimantan.</span></li></ol>
<a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/jalur-gempa-dunia.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-176" height="332" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEjawWwrCzH9XErWik0gmysyIUS28841eWgzn65ls9ixQTq_rHnvOhTwvIGHXbAW7NFxQ5f6vwaKf_fI9Yk90ljtdPtUERccIfXvx2QiG789b0Z1oECWmX_rIkTaGqoDcqhOR-0oyi-IGVnRVL1C-S4gM2qv-flByLKqnHSAMeG_VgDs2V6d8QQ1UtmIOhELshLBloZc0PmKyuwk2g=s0-d" style="height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; width: auto;" title="Jalur Gempa Dunia" width="530" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Pengaruh
vulkanisme terhadap kehidupan manusia, dapat menguntungkan tetapi dapat
juga merugikan. Di antara yang menguntungkan, antara lain:</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"></span>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">a.
Abu vulkanik yang dikeluarkan bcrsifat menyuburkan tanah pertanian di
sekitarnya. Hal itu berarti meningkatkan produksi pertanian daerah di
sekitarnya.</span></div><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">b.
Gejala pasca vulkanik merupakan objek wisata yang menarik. Misalnya:
bekas kepundan, geyser, dan kawah yang tergenang air seperti di
Galunggung. Kaawh ini </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms", sans-serif;">mendidih seperti di Dieng, solfatar, fumarol, danau bekas kawah, mata air panas, dan air mineral (belerang) untuk obat.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">
</span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"></span>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">c.
Bahan-bahan galian, misalnya belerang, besi, emas, dan perak, biasanya
terdapat di daerah bekas vulkan. Demikian juga bahan-bahan bangunan,
seperti pasir, batu, dan batu apung, banyak dihasilkan di daerah vulkan.</span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"></span><br />
</div><div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">d.
Daerah gunung api yang tinggi merupakan daerah penangkap hujan. Tanah
subur dengan curah hujan cukup banyak, memungkinkan terjadinya hutan
alami yang baik. Hal itu akan berpengaruh terhadap ekoslstem daerah itu.
Mata air bertambah banyak, sehingga pada musim kemarau tidak terjadi
kekeringan. Pada musim penghujan, tidak. terjadi erosi dan banjir</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">
</span>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhP5o6Mt7jP7QZaj42JEkFNae82QmQ2QDyuce1_ZV4pXHGmXZYy5riLtRN1r7G-mTk5ud9g658K6UVXI7cDNFzcUmsXg1ULtUbsHdg1D5SN4evdND2x4fz4uZj_HDr78XfMXiMbkj97TMk/s1600/5-dampak-erupsi-gunung-kelud-bagi-aktivitas-ekonomi.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Pengaruh Vulkanisme Terhadap Kehidupan" border="0" data-original-height="335" data-original-width="670" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhP5o6Mt7jP7QZaj42JEkFNae82QmQ2QDyuce1_ZV4pXHGmXZYy5riLtRN1r7G-mTk5ud9g658K6UVXI7cDNFzcUmsXg1ULtUbsHdg1D5SN4evdND2x4fz4uZj_HDr78XfMXiMbkj97TMk/s640/5-dampak-erupsi-gunung-kelud-bagi-aktivitas-ekonomi.jpg" title="Pengaruh Vulkanisme Terhadap Kehidupan" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Erupsi Kelud 2014 menggangu kegiatan penerbangan </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b>Akibat-akibat yang merugikan antara lain:</b></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"></span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">a.
Pada waktu terjadi letusan, kemungkinan terjadi banyak korban.
Lebih-lebih jika letusan itu disertai lahar panas, awan panas atau
bahan-bahan padat dalam jumlah besar. </span></div>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Hal itu tentu akan sangat merugikan daerah yang terlanda, tidak hanya
harta benda tetapi juga nyawa. Pada waktu terjadi letusan Gunung Kelud,
ribuan jiwa meninggal akibat lahar panas yang dikeluarkannya. </div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Juga ketika terjadi letusan Gunung Agung, ribuan jiwa meninggal dunia disertai korban dan harta yang tidak terhingga banyaknya.</div>
</span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"></span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">b.
Korban jiwa dapat terjadi akibat gas beracun yang dikeluarkan pgda saat
terjadi erupsi. Misalnya pada waktu terjadi. Letusan kawah Timbang dan
Sihila pada tahun 1979. Sekitar 149 jiwa mati karena menghirup gas
beracun.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: small; line-height: 150%;">Nandi, S.Pd. 2006. Handout Geologi Lingkungan “Vulkanisme”. Bandung. Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia</span></i></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: small; line-height: 150%;">Suprapto, Drs. 2012 Modul Mata Kuliah Ilmu Pengetahuan Bumi. Makassar : UIN Alauddin.</span></i></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-size: small;"><cite><u><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">geografi-geografi.blogspot.com/2011/06/<b>vulkanisme</b>.html geografizone.blogspot.com/2010/11/<b>vulkanisme</b>.html</span></u></cite></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://manfaat-vulkanisme.html/"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%;">\</span></a></span></i><br />
<i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%;">http://manfaat-vulkanisme.html</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><cite><u><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"> </span></u></cite></span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-size: small;"><cite><u><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">sitimaryatun23.blogspot.com/p/hasil-proses-<b>vulkanisme</b>.html</span></u></cite></span></i></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><cite><u><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">https://geoenviron.blogspot.com/2014/01/dinamika-perubahan-litosfer-dan.html</span></u></cite></span></i></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><cite><u><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">https://geoenviron.wordpress.com/2014/01/14/dinamika-perubahan-litosfer-dan-pedosfer-serta-dampaknya-terhadap-kehidupan-di-bumi/ <br /></span></u></cite></span></i></div>
</div><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> </span></div><span class="fullpost">
</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-11602434120549411172021-01-10T14:59:00.005-08:002021-01-11T15:05:17.631-08:00Tenaga Pembentuk Permukaan Bumi (Tektonisme)<br /><div style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">
<span style="background-color: white;"> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPOBPaUBGSwA2M05Z4uhqj-1OfXQCliJOG1wl5dyQM8Qukgcqu7p_QCwuBunTshyphenhyphenatd1bmSoBEUkXa8VP_us-7BxzR6OvDqFkqkBhYsUuCB1S-q3IxFPitYL-x0DSfWQaYZULLbafeuQKa/s1366/5.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="768" data-original-width="1366" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPOBPaUBGSwA2M05Z4uhqj-1OfXQCliJOG1wl5dyQM8Qukgcqu7p_QCwuBunTshyphenhyphenatd1bmSoBEUkXa8VP_us-7BxzR6OvDqFkqkBhYsUuCB1S-q3IxFPitYL-x0DSfWQaYZULLbafeuQKa/s320/5.png" width="320" /></a></div><br /><span><a name='more'></a></span>Tenaga yang mengubah bentuk permukaan bumi terdiri dari <b>tenaga endogen</b> dan<b> eksogen.</b></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b> </b></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b>A. Tenaga Endogen</b></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/perubahan-lempeng-bumi.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-194" height="315" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/perubahan-lempeng-bumi.jpg?w=530&h=315" style="border-radius: 5px; border: 1px solid rgb(201, 201, 201); box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0px 0px 20px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 8px; position: relative; width: auto;" title="Perubahan Lempeng Bumi" width="530" /></a></b></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">
<span style="background-color: white;">Endogen merupakan tenaga yang berasal
dari dalam bumi. Tenaga ini dapat memberi bentuk relief di permukaan
bumi. Tenaga endogen ada yang mempunyai sifat membangun dan ada yang
mempunyai sifat merusak. Tetapi secara umum tenaga endogen bersifat
membangun. Tenaga endogen merupakan kekuatan yang mendorong terjadinya
pergerakan kerak bumi. Pergerakan ini disebut <i>diastropisme</i>.
Adanya tenaga endogen menyebabkan terjadinya pergeseran kerak bumi.
Pergeseran kerak bumi akan menjadikan permukaan bumi berbentuk cembung,
seperti pegunungan atau gunung berapi, serta berbentuk cekung, seperti
laut dan danau. Adapun yang termasuk tenaga endogen meliputi :</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><span style="background-color: white;">1. Tektonisme <br /></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><b style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="background-color: white; text-decoration: underline;"><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/tumbukan-lempeng.jpg" style="color: #bc0404; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-193" height="306" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/tumbukan-lempeng.jpg?w=530&h=306" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Tumbukan Lempeng" width="530" /></a></span></b><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Tektonisme
adalah perubahan/pergeseran letak lapisan kulit bumi secara mendatar
atau vertikal. Jadi yang dimaksud dengan gerak tektonik adalah semua
gerak naik dan turun yang menyebabkan perubahan bentuk kulit bumi. Gerak
ini dibedakan lagi menjadi :</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /></span><ol style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><li><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Gerak Epirogenetik, </b>adalalah
gerak atau pergeseran lapisan kulit bumi yang relatif lambat,
berlangsung dalam waktu yang lama, dan meliputi daerah yang luas. Ada
dua macam gerak epirogenetik, yaitu :</span></li></ol><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">a) <b>Epirogenetik Positif, </b>yaitu gerak turunnya daratan sehingga terlihat seakan permukaan air laut naik.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">b) <b>Epirogenetk Negatif, </b>yaitu gerak naiknya daratan sehingga terlihat seakan permukaan air laut turun.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/epirogenetik-ppositif-negatif.jpg" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #bc0404; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-180" height="176" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/epirogenetik-ppositif-negatif.jpg?w=530&h=176" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Epirogenetik Ppositif & Negatif" width="530" /></a><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b>2. Gerak Orogenetik, </b>adalah
gerak atau pergeseran lapisan kulit bumi yang relatif lebih cepat dan
meliputi daerah yang tidak begitu luas. Gerak ini disebut juga gerakan
pembentuk pegunungan. Bentuk gerakan orogenetik dapat dibedakan menjadi :</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">a) <b>Wraping (Pelengkungan) Lipatan<br /></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Menurut sumbu lipatannya, jenis lipatan secara umum terbagi menjadi 4 yaitu Lipatan Tegak <i>(Symetrical Folds)</i>, Lipatan Miring <i>(Asymetrical Folds)</i>, Lipatan Menggantung <i>(Overturned Folds)</i>, dan Lipatan Rebah <i>(Recumbent Folds)</i>.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">1.
Lipatan Tegak adalah lipatan pegunungan yang sumbu pelipatannya tegak
lurus dengan bidang horizontal tanah sehingga kedua sayap yang sama
persis.</span></div></div><div id="kode-iklan-tengah2"><div id="3f53d7190148675e3cd472fc826828c5"><div class="total_2355"><table class="block_2355"><tbody><tr><td class="teaser_2355"></td><td class="teaser_2355"></td><td class="teaser_2355"></td></tr><tr><td class="teaser_2355"></td><td class="teaser_2355"></td><td class="teaser_2355"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">2. Lipatan Miring adalah lipatan pegunungan yang sumbu pelipatannya memiliki kedudukan miring dengan bidang permukaan tanah.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">3.
Lipatan Menggantung adalah lipatan pegunungan yang sumbu pelipatannya
kurang dari 45 derajat sehingga menyebabkan salah satu sisi bidangnya
terlihat menggantung.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">4.
Lipatan Rebah adalah lipatan pegunungan yang sumbu lipatannya hampir
sejajar dengan permukaan tanah (kurang dari 20 derajat) sehingga
terlihat seperti tindih menindih.</span></div>
</div><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b> </b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><b style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/recumbent.jpg" style="color: #bc0404; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-192" height="161" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/recumbent.jpg?w=530&h=161" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Recumbent" width="530" /></a><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/overthrust.jpg" style="color: #bc0404; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-191" height="182" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/overthrust.jpg?w=530&h=182" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Overthrust" width="530" /></a><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/overfold.jpg" style="color: #bc0404; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-190" height="193" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/overfold.jpg?w=530&h=193" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Overfold" width="530" /></a><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/nappe.jpg" style="color: #bc0404; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-189" height="157" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/nappe.jpg?w=530&h=157" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Nappe" width="530" /></a><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/lipatan-tegak.jpg" style="color: #bc0404; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-188" height="168" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/lipatan-tegak.jpg?w=530&h=168" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Lipatan Tegak" width="530" /></a><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/lipatan-miring1.jpg" style="color: #bc0404; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-187" height="181" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/lipatan-miring1.jpg?w=530&h=181" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Lipatan Miring" width="530" /></a></b><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Pada
muka bumi yang terdapat bentukan jenis ini, dataran akan melengkung ke
atas sehingga terbentuk suatu kubah atau yang disebut juga dengan <b>Dome.</b> Hal
ini disebabkan gerak vertikal yang tidak merata di suatu daerah,
khususnya di daerah yang berbatuan sedimen. Selain kubah, ada juga yang
mengarah ke bawah hingga membentuk cekungan atau basin, diameternya
dapat mencapai beberapa mil.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Bentuk
gejala perlipatan di muka bumi bermacam-macam. Perbedaan bentuk lipatan
ini terjadi karena kekuatan pembentuk lipatan yang berbeda serta
lapisan batuan yang berbeda pula. Secara umum ditemukan beberapa variasi
bentuk lipatan berikut.</span></div>
</div>
<ol><li><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Lipatan tegak, merupakan bagian lipatan dengan bidang poros dalam posisi yang vertikal.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Lipatan condong, yaitu lipatan dengan bidang poros miring.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Lipatan isoklin, yaitu lipatan dengan posisi kedua sayap hampir sejajar. Bidang porosnya bisa tegak lurus maupun miring.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Lipatan menggantung, yaitu lipatan yang kemiringan sayap dan kecuramannya sudah melalui poros vertikal.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Lipatan rebah, yaitu lipatan yang bidang porosnya sudah mendekati horizontal.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Monoklin, yaitu suatu pencuraman setempat di suatu daerah yang umumnya ditandai oleh kemiringan yang sangat landai. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Lipatan terbuka, yaitu lipatan yang masih memiliki potensi untuk lebih melengkung lagi.</span></li></ol>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Proses
perlipatan terjadi saat tumbukan antara dua lempeng litosfer (lempeng
benua dengan lempeng benua) yang bergerak dan arah berlawanan secara
mendatar. Proses perlipatan menyebabkan terbentuknya pegunungan
lipatan. <br /></span></div><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"> </span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">b) <b>Folding (Pelipatan)</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><b style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/sinklinorium-antiklinorium.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #bc0404; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-185" height="166" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/sinklinorium-antiklinorium.jpg?w=530&h=166" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; height: auto; margin: 5px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 7px; width: auto;" title="Sinklinorium & Antiklinorium" width="530" /></a></b><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Pelipatan
akan terjadi apabila struktur batuan pada suatu daerah menderita suatu
tekanan yang lemah. Namun, berlangsung lama dan belum melampaui titik
patah batuan sehingga hanya membentuk lipatan. Bagian puncak suatu
lipatan disebut dengan <b>antiklin</b>, sedangkan lembahnya disebut dengan <b>sinklin.</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">c) <b>Jointing (Retakan).</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Retakan
pada muka bumi terbentuk karena adanya pengaruh gaya regangan yang
mengarah ke dua arah yang berlawanan pada muka bumi sehingga terjadi
retakan2, tetapi masih bersambung.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Retakan
biasanya terjadi pada batuan yang rapuh sehingga tenaga yang kecil saja
sudah dapat membuat muka bumi retak2. Pada umumnya retakan ini
ditemukan pada puncak antiklinal, yang disebut <b>tektonik joint.</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">d) <b>Faulting (Patahan).</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><b style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/graben.jpg" style="color: #bc0404; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-thumbnail wp-image-181" height="121" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/graben.jpg?w=150&h=121" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; margin: 5px auto; padding: 7px;" title="Graben" width="150" /></a><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/regang.jpg" style="color: #bc0404; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-thumbnail wp-image-182" height="140" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/regang.jpg?w=150&h=140" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; margin: 5px auto; padding: 7px;" title="Regang" width="150" /></a><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/retakan.jpg" style="color: #bc0404; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-thumbnail wp-image-183" height="126" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/retakan.jpg?w=150&h=126" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; margin: 5px auto; padding: 7px;" title="Retakan" width="150" /></a><a href="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/slank.jpg" style="color: #bc0404; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-thumbnail wp-image-184" height="146" src="http://belajargeodenganhendri.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/slank.jpg?w=150&h=146" style="background: rgb(232, 232, 231) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-width: 0px; margin: 5px auto; padding: 7px;" title="Slank" width="150" /></a></b><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Jika
folding atau pelipatan membentuk muka bumi dalam waktu yang berlangsung
lama maka faulting atau patahan terjadi karena tekanan yang kuat dan
berlangsung sangat cepat. Batuan tidak hanya mengalami retakan, juga
mengalami <i>displacement</i>atau sudah terpisah satu dengan lainnnya.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Pada
umumnya, daerah sepanjang patahan merupakan daerah pusat gempa bumi
karena selalu mengalami pergeseran batuan kerak bumi. Patahan dapat
menyebabkan turunnya bagian kulit bumi atau yang disebut dengan <b>graben, </b>atau yang sering disebut juga dengan <b>slenk.</b></span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">Selain
menyebabkan turunnya bagian kulit bumi, patahan juga dapat menyebabkan
naiknya kulit bumi. Hal ini terjadi apabila bagian diantara dua patahan
mengalami pengangkatan sehingga menjadi lebih tinggi dari daerah
sekitarnya, atau yang biasa disebut dengan <b>horst.</b></span> <span style="font-size: small;">Daerah retakan
seringkali mempunyai bagian-bagian yang terangkat atau tenggelam. Jadi,
selalu mengalami perubahan dari keadaan semula, kadang bergeser dengan
arah mendatar, bahkan mungkin setelah terjadi retakan, bagian-bagiannya
tetap berada di tempatnya.<br />· Horst (tanah naik) adalah lapisan tanah
yang terletak lebih tinggi dari daerah sekelilingnya, akibat patahnya
lapisan-lapisan tanah sekitarnya.<br />· Graben/slenk (tanah turun) adalah
lapisan tanah yang terletak lebih rendah dari daerah sekelilingnya
akibat patahnya lapisan sekitarnya.<br />· Dekstral terjadi jika kita
berdiri potongan yang berada di depan kita bergeser ke kanan. Sinistral,
jika kita berdiri di potongan sesar yang satu dan potongan di depan
kita bergeser ke arah kiri.<br />· Block mountain terjadi akibat tena ga
endogen yang membentuk retakanretakan di suatu daerah, ada yang naik,
ada yang turun, dan ada pula yang bergerak miring sehingga terjadilah
satu kompleks pegunungan patahan yang terdiri atas balok-balok litosfer.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><div style="text-align: left;">
Patahan Semangko terbentuk karena desakan lempeng indo australia ke
dalam lempeng eurasia sehingga pulau sumatera terbelah. Sesar membagi
lapisan batuan menjadi 2 block yaitu Hanging wall dan Foot wall. </div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /><div id="baca-juga">
</div></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Hanging wall adalah block batuan yang terletak di atas bidang sesar
sedangkan Foot wall adalah block yang terdapat di bawah bidang sesar.</div>
</span><br />
</span><div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
</span></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhncLCTEH7xIiM0-7dG8XD0l2GSQKsj1LkvXRg_F83OsYi02Z2H9BcTaLdapEL5bq5HolDD_ZFFSn6nYK24nGL_Rs4VgLXCW1Lep407dEZfohLofQwvY3_8cqoZ4Qe3XE5gI_U50vmoeZM/s1600/23.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhncLCTEH7xIiM0-7dG8XD0l2GSQKsj1LkvXRg_F83OsYi02Z2H9BcTaLdapEL5bq5HolDD_ZFFSn6nYK24nGL_Rs4VgLXCW1Lep407dEZfohLofQwvY3_8cqoZ4Qe3XE5gI_U50vmoeZM/s400/23.jpg" width="356" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Sesar Sumatera (Semangko)</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Untuk
memudahkan mengenali mana itu hanging wall atau foot wall, lihat saja
blok batuan yang bentuknya seperti telapak kaki itu adalah foot wall.
Dalam lingkungan fault biasanya terdapat lapisan batuan yang turun yang
disebut graben, atau lapisan yang naik disebut horst.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">
</span>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><img border="0" height="255" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgE81gX8Ex2ggdr7M2sI1kfEkyUpKBR6Ei7SSXa31RgljZcdnDyZSoShWWgnMZYx1i6uH2ojCUOD6rvTN0dJ5_FbUC8IWy6zCaRL0x2U5ZftKCwlqXN96gr05m1zUpEqI1N4BNoUs3cw7E/s400/HorstGraben.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Hors dan Graben</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Jenis Sesar dapat dikategorikan menjadi beberapa macam berdasarkan gerakannya yaitu</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><i style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-style: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><span dir="LTR" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: -18pt;"></span><i style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Normal Fault </span></i></span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Merupakan patahan yang memungkinkan
satu blok (footwall) lapisan batuan bergerak dengan arah relatif naik terhadap blok
lainnya (hanging wall). Ciri dari patahan ini adalah sudut kemiringan besar hingga mendekati
90 derajat.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><img border="0" height="205" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPdDiJKosFmrUnFxphmFZNSgjpG23b0dgZNCxTCm4r4YObnvqO9c0XJ8ghgTT0b_se1ucai1yJp7TFcA0GTK12Mspz-AkRoWLBcBb-D0S4AEa4Yo_r5TaJ_mlXCo06xKxWCfOR50MFyug/s1600/normal.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="320" /></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Patahan geologi</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><i style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-style: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><i style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Reserve Fault </span></i></span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Merupakan patahan dengan arah footwall yang
relatif turun dibanding hanging wall. Ciri dari patahan ini adalah sudut kemiringan yang relatif kecil
yaitu kurang dari 45 derajat.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
</span></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><img border="0" height="193" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi74_ChLu9Tw2NlMR2bRMuQRfUjhCqxouj8aY1i7u_BuM51BdwEkdeD5Wj_hcDWVFSmF-qN-FwXZoHFcMnPJfqdIU4OuD7Ndog-bNUe_SiA7g62wqRKmvxTukKgCPO1-su-OvvfgSG6f34/s1600/reserv.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="320" /></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Patahan geologi</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi74_ChLu9Tw2NlMR2bRMuQRfUjhCqxouj8aY1i7u_BuM51BdwEkdeD5Wj_hcDWVFSmF-qN-FwXZoHFcMnPJfqdIU4OuD7Ndog-bNUe_SiA7g62wqRKmvxTukKgCPO1-su-OvvfgSG6f34/s1600/reserv.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"></span></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><i style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-style: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><i style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Strike Fault </span></i></span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Merupakan
patahan yang arahnya
relatif mendatar ke kiri atau ke kanan. Arah patahan mendatar ini tidak
sepenuhnya seluruh lapisan batuan bergerak dengan arah mendatar namun
sebagian
ada yang bergerak dengan arah vertikal. Bila gerakan patahan ke kanan
di sebut sesar geser sinistrial dan bila ke kiri dinamakan sesar geser
dekstral.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
</span></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><img border="0" height="201" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRbE464zmH6s2FdEUC0_jqx7BFzblArR49hWWdH0AMgsHUpoOn6lFNSMRtRUu1N_Rx3Y5n52VBp8M9pPBLGAwoV97GgQuWtsZHio7koQBBmhrus2dirRWQ5ypvUvix8wwrKQeL78FFlnA/s1600/strike.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="320" /></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Patahan geologi</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; line-height: 24px;">Struktur <i>faults </i>terbentuk
karena adanya gaya endogen kerak bumi berupa tekanan-tekanan pada
dinding lapisan batuan. Gempa berskala rendah juga sering terjadi pada
zona ini. Di zona patahan ini sering ditemukan fenomena seperti gawir,
air terjun, sungai berpola rektangular dan cebakan minyak/gas</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"> <br /></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><div align="justify">
<span style="font-family: Myriad Web Pro; font-size: small;">Minyak
bumi terbentuk dari penguraian senyawa-senyawa organik dari jasad
mikroorganisme jutaan tahun yang lalu di dasar laut atau di darat.
Sisa-sisa tumbuhan dan hewan tersebut tertimbun oleh endapan pasir, <span class="u5638" id="u5638_5">lumpur</span>,
dan zat-zat lain selama jutaan tahun dan mendapat tekanan serta panas
bumi secara alami. Bersamaan dengan proses tersebut, bakteri pengurai
merombak senyawa-senyawa kompleks dalam jasad organik menjadi
senyawa-senyawa hidrokarbon. Proses penguraian ini berlangsung sangat
lamban sehingga untuk membentuk minyak bumi dibutuhkan waktu yang sangat
lama. Itulah sebabnya minyak bumi termasuk sumber daya alam yang tidak
dapat diperbarui, sehingga dibutuhkan kebijaksanaan dalam eksplorasi dan
pemakaiannya.</span></div>
<div align="justify">
<span style="font-family: Myriad Web Pro; font-size: small;">Hasil
peruraian yang berbentuk cair akan menjadi minyak bumi dan yang berwujud
gas menjadi gas alam. Untuk mendapatkan minyak bumi ini dapat dilakukan
dengan pengeboran. Beberapa bagian jasad renik mengandung minyak dan
lilin. Minyak dan lilin ini dapat bertahan <span class="u5638" id="u5638_8">lama</span>
di dalam perut bumi. Bagian-bagian tersebut akan membentuk
bintik-bintik, warnanya pun berubah menjadi cokelat tua. Bintink-bintik
itu akan tersimpan di dalam lumpur dan mengeras karena terkena tekanan
bumi. Lumpur tersebut berubah menjadi batuan dan terkubur semakin dalam
di dalam perut bumi. Tekanan dan panas bumi secara alami akan mengenai
batuan lumpur sehingga mengakibatkan batuan lumpur menjadi panas dan
bintin-bintik di dalam batuan mulai mengeluarkan minyak kental yang
pekat. Semakin dalam batuan terkabur di perut bumi, minyak yang
dihasilkan akan semakin banyak. Pada saat batuan lumpur mendidih, minyak
yang dikeluarkan berupa minyak cair yang bersifat encer, dan saat
suhunya sangat tinggi akan dihasilkan gas alam. Gas alam ini sebagian
besar berupa metana.</span></div>
<div align="justify">
<span style="font-family: Myriad Web Pro; font-size: small;">Sementara
itu, saat lempeng kulit bumi bergerak, minyak yang terbentuk di berbagai
tempat akan bergerak. Minyak bumi yang terbentuk akan terkumpul dalam
pori-pori batu pasir atau batu kapur. Oleh karena adanya gaya kapiler
dan tekanan di perut bumi lebih besar dibandingkan dengan tekanan di
permukaan bumi, minyak bumi akan bergerak ke atas. Apabila gerak ke atas
minyak bumi ini terhalang oleh batuan yang kedap cairan atau batuan
tidak berpori, minyak akan terperangkap dalam batuan tersebut. Oleh
karena itu, minyak bumi juga disebut <i><span class="u5638" id="u5638_6">petroleum</span></i>. Petroleum berasal dari bahasa Latin, <i>petrus</i> artinya batu dan <i>oleum</i> yang artinya minyak.</span></div>
<div align="justify">
<span style="font-family: Myriad Web Pro; font-size: small;">Daerah di dalam lapisan tanah yang kedap <span class="u5638" id="u5638_7">air</span>
tempat terkumpulnya minyak bumi disebut cekungan atau antiklinal.
Lapisan paling bawah dari cekungan ini berupa air tawar atau air asin,
sedangkan lapisan di atasnya berupa minyak bumi bercampur gas alam. Gas
alam berada di lapisan atas minyak bumi karena massa jenisnya lebih
ringan daripada massa jenis minyak bumi. Apabila akumulasi minyak bumi
di suatu cekungan cukup banyak dan secara komersial menguntungkan,
minyak bumi tersebut diambil dengan cara pengeboran. Minyak bumi diambil
dari sumur minyak yang ada di pertambangan-pertambangan minyak.
Lokasi-lokasi sumur-sumur minyak diperoleh setelah melalui proses studi
geologi analisis sedimen karakter dan struktur sumber.</span></div>
<div align="justify">
<span style="font-family: Myriad Web Pro; font-size: small;">Berikut adalah langkah-langkah proses pembentukan minyak bumi beserta gamar ilustrasi:</span></div>
<div align="justify">
<span style="font-family: Myriad Web Pro; font-size: small;">1. Ganggang hidup di danau tawar (juga di laut). Mengumpulkan <span class="u5638" id="u5638_4">energi</span> dari matahari dengan fotosintesis.</span></div>
<div align="justify">
<span style="font-family: Myriad Web Pro; font-size: small;"><img alt="proses pembentukan minyak bumi 1" border="0" height="370" src="http://lh6.ggpht.com/-UrShXg4tsWE/UZSbBnIvAjI/AAAAAAAAGOg/RrN2KnMGg6M/proses%252520pembentukan%252520minyak%252520bumi%2525201%25255B3%25255D.jpg?imgmax=800" style="background-image: none; border: 0px none; display: block; float: none; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" title="proses pembentukan minyak bumi 1" width="576" /></span></div>
<div align="justify">
<span style="font-family: Myriad Web Pro; font-size: small;">2. Setelah ganggang-ganggang ini mati, maka akan terendapkan di dasar cekungan sedimen dan membentuk batuan induk (<i>source rock</i>). Batuan induk adalah batuan yang mengandung karbon (<i>High <span class="u5638" id="u5638_3">Total</span> <span class="u5638" id="u5638_1">Organic Carbon</span></i>). Batuan ini bisa batuan hasil pengendapan di danau, di <span class="u5638" id="u5638_2">delta</span>,
maupun di dasar laut. Proses pembentukan karbon dari ganggang menjadi
batuan induk ini sangat spesifik. Itulah sebabnya tidak semua cekungan
sedimen akan mengandung minyak atau gas bumi. Jika karbon ini
teroksidasi maka akan terurai dan bahkan menjadi rantai karbon yang
tidak mungkin dimasak.</span></div>
<div align="justify">
<span style="font-family: Myriad Web Pro; font-size: small;"><img alt="proses pembentukan minyak bumi 2" border="0" height="372" src="http://lh5.ggpht.com/-qteJnE4bG-Q/UZSbDF2w9xI/AAAAAAAAGOo/VCJs3eEtyL0/proses%252520pembentukan%252520minyak%252520bumi%2525202%25255B3%25255D.jpg?imgmax=800" style="background-image: none; border: 0px none; display: block; float: none; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" title="proses pembentukan minyak bumi 2" width="579" /></span></div>
<div align="justify">
<span style="font-family: Myriad Web Pro; font-size: small;">3. Batuan
induk akan terkubur di bawah batuan-batuan lainnya yang berlangsung
selama jutaan tahun. Proses pengendapan ini berlangsung terus menerus.
Salah satu batuan yang menimbun batuan induk adalah batuan <i>reservoir</i>
atau batuan sarang. Batuan sarang adalah batu pasir, batu gamping, atau
batuan vulkanik yang tertimbun dan terdapat ruang berpori-pori di
dalamnya. Jika daerah ini terus tenggelam dan terus ditumpuki oleh
batuan-batuan lain di atasnya, maka batuan yang mengandung karbon ini
akan terpanaskan. Semakin kedalam atau masuk amblas ke bumi, maka
suhunya akan bertambah. Minyak terbentuk pada suhu antara 50 sampai 180
derajat Celsius. Tetapi puncak atau kematangan terbagus akan tercapai
bila suhunya mencapat 100 derajat Celsius. Ketika suhu terus bertambah
karena cekungan itu semakin turun dalam yang juga diikuti penambahan
batuan penimbun, maka suhu tinggi ini akan memasak karbon yang ada
menjadi gas.</span></div>
<div align="justify">
<span style="font-family: Myriad Web Pro; font-size: small;"><img alt="proses pembentukan minyak bumi 3" border="0" height="372" src="http://lh3.ggpht.com/-t1QKFA8ZphE/UZSbEqlElFI/AAAAAAAAGOw/5V8EgXR0oBk/proses%252520pembentukan%252520minyak%252520bumi%2525203%25255B3%25255D.jpg?imgmax=800" style="background-image: none; border: 0px none; display: block; float: none; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" title="proses pembentukan minyak bumi 3" width="579" />4.
Karbon terkena panas dan bereaksi dengan hidrogen membentuk
hidrokarbon. Minyak yang dihasilkan oleh batuan induk yang telah matang
ini berupa minyak mentah. Walaupun berupa cairan, ciri fisik minyak bumi
mentah berbeda dengan air. Salah satunya yang terpenting adalah berat
jenis dan kekentalan. Kekentalan minyak bumi mentah lebih tinggi dari
air, namun berat jenis minyak bumi mentah lebih kecil dari air. Minyak
bumi yang memiliki berat jenis lebih rendah dari air cenderung akan
pergi ke atas. Ketika minyak tertahan oleh sebuah bentuk batuan yang
menyerupai mangkok terbalik, maka minyak ini akan tertangkap dan siap
ditambang.</span></div>
<div align="justify">
<span style="font-family: Myriad Web Pro; font-size: small;"><img alt="proses pembentukan minyak bumi 4" border="0" height="367" src="http://lh3.ggpht.com/-JN1dEMc4c1A/UZSbF_OvTHI/AAAAAAAAGO4/WmyoWZaWrvc/proses%252520pembentukan%252520minyak%252520bumi%2525204%25255B3%25255D.jpg?imgmax=800" style="background-image: none; border: 0px none; display: block; float: none; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" title="proses pembentukan minyak bumi 4" width="575" /></span></div><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"> </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><p><span style="font-size: small;">Berikut ini adalah pengenalan bagaimanakah minyak dan gas dari tempat
awal minyak dan gas itu terbentuk sampai terakumulasi pada satu tempat,
yang menjadi satu rangkaian yang dinamakan <i>petroleum system</i>. Dalam <i>petroleum system</i> terdapat beberapa <i>elements</i> yang dibutuhkan serta proses yang terjadi sehingga minyak dan gas tersebut dapat terbentuk dan terakumulasi, yaitu <i>source rock, reservoir rock, cap rock, overbuden rock, trap, migration, accumulation</i>.</span></p>
<p><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="https://smiagiundip.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/picture1.jpg"><img alt="picture1" class="size-medium wp-image-161 aligncenter" data-attachment-id="161" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-description="" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":""}" data-image-title="picture1" data-large-file="https://smiagiundip.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/picture1.jpg?w=736" data-medium-file="https://smiagiundip.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/picture1.jpg?w=300" data-orig-file="https://smiagiundip.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/picture1.jpg" data-orig-size="1315,871" data-permalink="https://smiagiundip.wordpress.com/2013/03/31/petroleum-system/picture1/" height="198" src="https://smiagiundip.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/picture1.jpg?w=300&h=198" width="300" /></a></span></p>
<p><span style="font-size: small;"><i>Source rock</i>/batuan induk merupakan batuan yang memiliki
kandungan organik yang tinggi sehingga nantinya dapat menjadi
hidrokarbon, dalam proses terbentuknya hidrokarbon ini terdapat tahap
pematangan, dimana tahap pematangan ini terjadi dari bahan organik itu
terendapkan sampai terbentuk hidrokarbon</span></p>
<p><span style="font-size: small;"><i>Reservoir rock </i>merupakan batuan yang mampu untuk menyimpan dan
mengalirkan fluida dimana hal ini dipengaruhi oleh porositas dan
permeabilitas batuan itu sendiri, contoh batuannya adalah batupasir,
batugamping.</span></p>
<p><span style="font-size: small;"><i>Cap rock</i>/batuan penutup merupakan batuan yang memiliki kemampuan untuk menahan hidrokarbon, contoh batuannya adalah batulempung.</span></p>
<p><span style="font-size: small;"><i>Overbuden rock</i> merupakan batuan yang tebal berada di atas
batuan reservoir dan batuan induk sehingga menghasilkan tekanan dan suhu
tertentu yang berguna untuk pembentukan hidrokrabon dari batuan induk.</span></p>
<p><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="https://smiagiundip.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/ps4.jpg"><img alt="ps4" class="size-medium wp-image-162 aligncenter" data-attachment-id="162" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-description="" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":""}" data-image-title="ps4" data-large-file="https://smiagiundip.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/ps4.jpg?w=400" data-medium-file="https://smiagiundip.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/ps4.jpg?w=300" data-orig-file="https://smiagiundip.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/ps4.jpg" data-orig-size="400,193" data-permalink="https://smiagiundip.wordpress.com/2013/03/31/petroleum-system/ps4/" height="144" src="https://smiagiundip.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/ps4.jpg?w=300&h=144" width="300" /></a></span></p>
<p><span style="font-size: small;"><i>Seal rock</i> merupakan batuan yang memiliki porositas dan permeabilitas kecil, yang terdapat diatas batuan reservoir</span></p>
<p><span style="font-size: small;">Setelah terbentuk hidrokarbon pada batuan induk, maka hidrokarbon
tersebut akan mengalami migrasi menuju batuan reservoir, dan akan
terakumulasi jika ada jebakan yang menyebabkan hidrokarbon tersebut
dapat tertahan di batuan reservoir dan terakumulasi.</span></p>
<p><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="https://smiagiundip.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/images.jpg"><img alt="images" class="size-full wp-image-163 aligncenter" data-attachment-id="163" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-description="" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":""}" data-image-title="images" data-large-file="https://smiagiundip.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/images.jpg?w=283" data-medium-file="https://smiagiundip.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/images.jpg?w=283" data-orig-file="https://smiagiundip.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/images.jpg" data-orig-size="283,178" data-permalink="https://smiagiundip.wordpress.com/2013/03/31/petroleum-system/images/" src="https://smiagiundip.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/images.jpg?w=736" /></a></span></p><span style="font-size: small;">
Proses-proses diatas lah yang terjadi pada proses terbentuk dan
keterdapatan minyak dan gas bumi, semoga ini menjadi pemicu semangat
untuk para geologis-geologis menemukan cadangan minyak dan
mengeksplorasi yang ada di indonesia ini dan dapat membangun bangsa
indonesia ini dan menjadi bangsa yang maju di mata dunia.<br /></span></div><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span><br /><span class="fullpost">
</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-66669712690940348782021-01-05T23:54:00.012-08:002021-01-07T15:05:17.618-08:00Aurora dalam Perspektif Al Qur'an<div class="wpcnt" style="background-color: white; clear: both; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; line-height: 0; margin: 1em 0px; text-align: center;"><div class="wpa wpmrec" style="display: inline-block; max-width: 100%; min-width: 300px; padding: 10px 0px 0px; position: relative; text-align: left; transform: translate3d(0px, 0px, 0px);"><span class="wpa-about" face=""Open Sans", Arial, sans-serif" style="border-bottom: medium none; display: block; font-size: 10px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; left: 0px; line-height: 1; min-width: 160px; opacity: 0.85; position: absolute; right: 0px; top: 5px;"><br /></span><div class="u" style="margin-top: 10px;"><amp-ad class="i-amphtml-layout-fixed i-amphtml-layout-size-defined i-amphtml-element i-amphtml-built i-amphtml-layout" data-amp-slot-index="0" data-block-on-consent="_auto_reject" data-ht="0" data-pt="1" data-section="2" data-siteid="8982" height="265" i-amphtml-layout="fixed" style="--loader-delay-offset: 66ms !important; display: inline-block; height: 265px; overflow: hidden; position: relative; width: 300px;" type="pubmine" width="300"><div class="amp-wp-iframe-placeholder amp-hidden" placeholder="" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-clip: border-box; background-color: #c2c2c2; background-origin: padding-box; background-position: center 40%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 48px 48px; background: url("https://s2-wp-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/s2.wp.com/wp-content/plugins/amp-1.4/assets/images/placeholder-icon.png") center 40% / 48px 48px no-repeat rgb(194, 194, 194); min-height: 48px; position: absolute; visibility: hidden; z-index: 1;"></div></amp-ad></div></div></div><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><a href="https://anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora11.jpg" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top"><amp-img alt="" class="alignleft size-full wp-image-488 amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-element i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined i-amphtml-built i-amphtml-layout" height="195" i-amphtml-auto-lightbox-visited="" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic" layout="intrinsic" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora11.jpg?w=584" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora11.jpg 262w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora11.jpg?w=150 150w" style="--loader-delay-offset: 65ms !important; display: inline-block; float: left; margin: 0px 16px 1em 0px; max-width: 100%; overflow: hidden; position: relative;" title="aurora1" width="262"></amp-img></a></b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOVmtEJ4ehSUcFogMR7SS7Sls2anTyiEH7maLO4t4wLDKmTCQ-fHB50DRDpLc44KpJDEaCiqLPTqCtxnOAGw7f4yvyYrZfl5MldTbLDr61O1H8FPPBIJkEl3TkttGJAMhyphenhyphenDuy7keXYNcIn/s1350/FB_IMG_1608795632221.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1350" data-original-width="1080" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOVmtEJ4ehSUcFogMR7SS7Sls2anTyiEH7maLO4t4wLDKmTCQ-fHB50DRDpLc44KpJDEaCiqLPTqCtxnOAGw7f4yvyYrZfl5MldTbLDr61O1H8FPPBIJkEl3TkttGJAMhyphenhyphenDuy7keXYNcIn/s320/FB_IMG_1608795632221.jpg" /></a></b></div><b><br />Aurora</b> adalah fenomena alam yang menyerupai pancaran <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cahaya" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top" title="Cahaya">cahaya</a> yang menyala-nyala pada lapisan <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionosfer" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top" title="Ionosfer">ionosfer</a> dari sebuah <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top" title="Planet">planet</a> sebagai akibat adanya interaksi antara <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medan_magnetik" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top" title="Medan magnetik">medan magnetik</a> yang dimiliki planet tersebut dengan partikel bermuatan yang dipancarkan oleh Matahari (<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angin_surya&action=edit&redlink=1" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top" title="Angin surya (halaman belum tersedia)">angin surya</a>).<p></p><a name='more'></a><p></p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;">Aurora, itulah nama sebuah fenomena yang terjadi akibat adanya interaksi antara partikel-partikel Matahari yang terjebak dalam medan magnet dan atmosfer Bumi yang mengalir turun sesuai dengan garis-garis medan magnetik Bumi ke kutub-kutub Bumi dan bertabrakan dengan atom nitrogen dan oksigen di atmosfer sehingga terjadinya badai geomagnetik yang menghasilkan tirai cahaya berwarna-warni di beberapa lokasi berlintang tinggi. Penamaan Aurora sendiri diambil dari bahasa Yunani yaitu <i>Dewi Fajar Rom.</i></p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;">Percikan matahari adalah kejadian alam yang alami, penyebabnya ada di inti matahari namun para ilmuan belum tahu apa yang menyebabkan itu terjadi. Percikan yang terjadi di permukaan matahari bahkan sampai menjauhi matahari. Percikan ini jika ada di sekitar matahari berbentuk setengah lingkaran. Jika sudah menjauhi matahari bola api raksasa yang berasal dari matahari. Percikan ini bisa menjauhi matahari selama satu minggu sampai pada akhirnya benda itu menghilang. Percikan api terbesar yang sudah pernah tercatat dapat melampaui besar planet Jupiter. Sangat besarnya ukuran benda langit ini dapat menghancurkan bumi seisinya. Bola api raksasa ini jika mencapai bumi akan menyebabkan aurora pada kutub bumi. Aurora ini terbentuk akibat panas dari bongkahan benda langit dari matahari ditolak oleh bagian kutub magnit bumi. Aurora ini memancar berwarna warni membentuk gambar tiga dimensi yang sangat indah. Namun jika bongkahan besar ini mencapai bumi panasnya bisa mencapai 70 derajat pada malam hari di atmosfir bumi. Efek dari percikan ini adalah satelit yang ada di angkasa bisa rusak, sambungan telepon putus dan kita tidak bisa mendapatkan arus listirk. Saat ini panas yang ada mencapai seribu kali dari panas awal. Ini dapat menyebabkan merkurius menjadi korban keganasannya dan kemudian venus. Energi yang dilepaskan pada saat partikel tersebut bertubrukan dapat dilihat secara visual melalui warna cahaya yang berbeda-beda. Warna yang terlihat bergantung pada ketinggian dan jenis molekul yang ada. Pada ketinggian di atas 300 km partakel tersebut bertumbukan dengan atom hydrogen menimbulkan warna aurora kemerah-merahan. Ketinggian 140 km, tumbukan dengan molekul oksigen menimbulkan aurora biru atau ungu. Ketinggian 100 km, partikel bertumbukan dengan atom oksigen dan nitrogen menimbulkan cahaya warna hijau atau merah muda.</p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;">Beruntung, kita diberi magnet alami untuk menangkal partikel berenergi tinggi ini sebagaimana dalam al-Qur’an surat al-Anbiya’: 32</p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><amp-img alt="" class="amp-wp-unknown-size amp-wp-unknown-width amp-wp-unknown-height amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-element i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined i-amphtml-built i-amphtml-layout amp-notsupported" height="400" i-amphtml-auto-lightbox-visited="" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic" layout="intrinsic" object-fit="contain" src="https://i2-wp-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/i2.wp.com/www.alquran-indonesia.com/images/alquran/s021/a032.png" srcset="https://i2-wp-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w680/s/i2.wp.com/www.alquran-indonesia.com/images/alquran/s021/a032.png 680w, https://i2-wp-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w820/s/i2.wp.com/www.alquran-indonesia.com/images/alquran/s021/a032.png 820w" style="display: inline-block; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; overflow: hidden; position: relative;" width="584"><i-amphtml-sizer class="i-amphtml-sizer" slot="i-amphtml-svc" style="display: block; max-width: 100%;"></i-amphtml-sizer><img alt="" class="i-amphtml-fill-content i-amphtml-replaced-content i-amphtml-ghost" decoding="async" sizes="(max-width: 393px) 361px, 100vw" src="https://i2-wp-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/i2.wp.com/www.alquran-indonesia.com/images/alquran/s021/a032.png" srcset="https://i2-wp-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w680/s/i2.wp.com/www.alquran-indonesia.com/images/alquran/s021/a032.png 680w, https://i2-wp-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w820/s/i2.wp.com/www.alquran-indonesia.com/images/alquran/s021/a032.png 820w" style="border: medium none; display: block; height: 0px; inset: 0px; margin: auto; max-height: 100%; max-width: 100%; min-height: 100%; min-width: 100%; object-fit: contain; padding: 0px; position: absolute; visibility: hidden; width: 0px;" /></amp-img></p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;">“Dan Kami menjadikan langit sebagai atap yang terpelihara, namun mereka tetap berpaling dari tanda-tanda (kebesaran Allah).”</p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/magneto.jpg" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top"><amp-img alt="" class="alignleft size-medium wp-image-490 amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-element i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined i-amphtml-built i-amphtml-layout" height="219" i-amphtml-auto-lightbox-visited="" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic" layout="intrinsic" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/magneto.jpg?w=300&h=219" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/magneto.jpg?w=300&h=219 300w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/magneto.jpg?w=150&h=110 150w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/magneto.jpg 390w" style="display: inline-block; float: left; margin: 0px 16px 1em 0px; max-width: 100%; overflow: hidden; position: relative;" title="magneto" width="300"><i-amphtml-sizer class="i-amphtml-sizer" slot="i-amphtml-svc" style="display: block; max-width: 100%;"><img alt="" aria-hidden="true" class="i-amphtml-intrinsic-sizer" role="presentation" src="data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,<svg height="219px" width="300px" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" version="1.1"/>" style="display: block; max-width: 100%;" /></i-amphtml-sizer><img alt="" class="i-amphtml-fill-content i-amphtml-replaced-content" decoding="async" sizes="(max-width: 393px) 300px, 100vw" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/magneto.jpg?w=300&h=219" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/magneto.jpg?w=300&h=219 300w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/magneto.jpg?w=150&h=110 150w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/magneto.jpg 390w" style="border: medium none; display: block; height: 0px; inset: 0px; margin: auto; max-height: 100%; max-width: 100%; min-height: 100%; min-width: 100%; object-fit: contain; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 0px;" title="magneto" /></amp-img></a>Jika partikel bermuatan dipaksa melintasi medan magnetik maka ia akan diarahkan oleh medan magnetik Bumi, untuk bergerak sesuai dengan garis-garis medan magnetik Bumi, meninggalkan suatu daerah berbentuk komet di sekitar Bumi kita yang disebut <i>magnetosfer</i> menuju ke arah kutub utara dan kutub selatan magnetik Bumi sehingga suatu arus listrik (induksi) dapat dihasilkan melalui suatu kumpulan interaksi-interaksi yang kompleks, beberapa dari partikel-partikel bermuatan dapat menembus ke dalam magnetosfer ini berkumpul dalam beberapa zone di sekitar Bumi. Arus listrik yang dibangkitkan memberikan energi untuk mempercepat beberapa dari partikel-partikel ini kembali menuju Bumi, sejajar dengan garis-garis gaya magnetik yang berasal dari kutub-kutub magnetik utara dan selatan. Saat partikel-partikel energetik tersebut berbenturan dengan partikel udara dalam atmosfer Bumi, ia akan menyebabkan partikel udara (terutama nitrogen) terionisasi dan mengeksitasi atom-atom dan molekul-molekul lainnya ketingkat energi lebih tinggi (keadaan eksitasi). Ketika atom-atom dan molekul-molekul ini kembali ke keadaan dasarnya dengan cara membebaskan energi, atom-atom dan molekul-molekul ini memancarkan radiasi dengan panjang gelombang tertentu. Panjang gelombang-panjang gelombang cahaya tampak yang dipancarkan menghasilkan <span class="amp-wp-ba670eb" style="color: red;"><b>AURORA</b>.</span></p><div class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; text-align: justify;"><b><span class="amp-wp-ba670eb" style="color: red;">Bagaimana proses terbentuknya aurora yang indah ini?</span></b></div><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/solar-wind1.jpg" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top"><amp-img alt="" class="aligncenter size-medium wp-image-474 amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-element i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined i-amphtml-built i-amphtml-layout" height="290" i-amphtml-auto-lightbox-visited="" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic" layout="intrinsic" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/solar-wind1.jpg?w=300&h=290" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/solar-wind1.jpg?w=300&h=290 300w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/solar-wind1.jpg?w=150&h=145 150w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/solar-wind1.jpg 455w" style="display: block; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; overflow: hidden; position: relative; text-align: center;" title="solar wind" width="300"><i-amphtml-sizer class="i-amphtml-sizer" slot="i-amphtml-svc" style="display: block; max-width: 100%;"></i-amphtml-sizer></amp-img></a>Jadi di planet yang kita tempati ini dikelilingi selubung magnetik super besar yang biasanya disebut Medan Magnetik Bumi.</p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/benturan-partikel-dari-solar-wind.jpg" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top"><amp-img alt="" class="alignright size-medium wp-image-475 amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-element i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined i-amphtml-built i-amphtml-layout" height="197" i-amphtml-auto-lightbox-visited="" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic" layout="intrinsic" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/benturan-partikel-dari-solar-wind.jpg?w=300&h=197" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/benturan-partikel-dari-solar-wind.jpg?w=300&h=197 300w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/benturan-partikel-dari-solar-wind.jpg?w=150&h=99 150w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/benturan-partikel-dari-solar-wind.jpg 550w" style="display: inline-block; float: right; margin: 0px 0px 1em 16px; max-width: 100%; overflow: hidden; position: relative;" title="benturan partikel dari solar wind" width="300"><i-amphtml-sizer class="i-amphtml-sizer" slot="i-amphtml-svc" style="display: block; max-width: 100%;"><img alt="" aria-hidden="true" class="i-amphtml-intrinsic-sizer" role="presentation" src="data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,<svg height="197px" width="300px" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" version="1.1"/>" style="display: block; max-width: 100%;" /></i-amphtml-sizer><img alt="" class="i-amphtml-fill-content i-amphtml-replaced-content" decoding="async" sizes="(max-width: 393px) 300px, 100vw" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/benturan-partikel-dari-solar-wind.jpg?w=300&h=197" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/benturan-partikel-dari-solar-wind.jpg?w=300&h=197 300w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/benturan-partikel-dari-solar-wind.jpg?w=150&h=99 150w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/benturan-partikel-dari-solar-wind.jpg 550w" style="border: medium none; display: block; height: 0px; inset: 0px; margin: auto; max-height: 100%; max-width: 100%; min-height: 100%; min-width: 100%; object-fit: contain; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 0px;" title="benturan partikel dari solar wind" /></amp-img></a>Kita beralih ke matahari, ada saat-saat dimana matahari mengeluarkan solar wind. Solar wind ini adalah aliran elektron dan proton yang terlepas dari matahari akibat tingginya energi kinetik yang dimiliki kedua partikel serta suhu matahari. Untuk lebih jelasnya baca di tante wiki aja. Nah, aliran partikel-partikel solar wind ini terperangkap di medan magnetik bumi, beberapa dari partikel-partikel ini mengarah ke kutub bumi dengan kecepatan yang terus bertambah.</p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;">Benturan antara partikel-partikel ini dan atom-atom yang terdapat dalam atmosfer bumi melepaskan energi yang menyebabkan terbentuknya aurora di kutub bumi yang nampak seperti lingkaran besar yang mengelilingi kutub. Makanya aurora lebih sering muncul dan bersinar lebih terang ketika matahari sedang aktif-aktifnya mengeluarkan Corona Mass Ejection yang menyebabkan meningkatnya intensitas dari solar wind. Benturan antara partikel-partikel ini dan atom-atom yang terdapat dalam atmosfer bumi melepaskan energi yang menyebabkan terbentuknya aurora di kutub bumi yang nampak seperti lingkaran besar yang mengelilingi kutub. Makanya aurora lebih sering muncul dan bersinar lebih terang ketika matahari sedang aktif-aktifnya mengeluarkan Corona Mass Ejection yang menyebabkan meningkatnya intensitas dari solar wind.</p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;">Di bumi (aurora bisa juga muncul di planet lain selain bumi), aurora muncul di sekitar kutub Utara dan kutub Selatan bumi.</p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="amp-wp-d528d8c" style="color: magenta;"><b><a href="https://anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora2.jpg" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top"><amp-img alt="" class="aligncenter size-medium wp-image-477 amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-element i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined i-amphtml-built i-amphtml-layout amp-notsupported" height="300" i-amphtml-auto-lightbox-visited="" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic" layout="intrinsic" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=300" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w330/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=300 330w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w680/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=300 680w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w820/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=300 820w" style="display: block; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; overflow: hidden; position: relative; text-align: center;" title="aurora" width="300"><i-amphtml-sizer class="i-amphtml-sizer" slot="i-amphtml-svc" style="display: block; max-width: 100%;"></i-amphtml-sizer><img alt="" class="i-amphtml-fill-content i-amphtml-replaced-content i-amphtml-ghost" decoding="async" sizes="(max-width: 393px) 361px, 100vw" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=300" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w330/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=300 330w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w680/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=300 680w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w820/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=300 820w" style="border: medium none; display: block; height: 0px; inset: 0px; margin: auto; max-height: 100%; max-width: 100%; min-height: 100%; min-width: 100%; object-fit: contain; padding: 0px; position: absolute; visibility: hidden; width: 0px;" title="aurora" /></amp-img></a>Mengapa Aurora hanya terdapat di kutub bumi??</b></span><br />Karena di kutub utara dan selatan medan magnetiknya sangat kuat dibanding wilayah lain. Meski kadang-kadang miss aurora bisa juga nampak di puncak gunung di iklim tropis tapi fenomena ini sangat jarang sekali terjadi.</p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;">Di <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bumi" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top" title="Bumi">bumi</a>, aurora terjadi di daerah di sekitar <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutub_Utara" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top" title="Kutub Utara">kutub Utara</a> dan <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutub_Selatan" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top" title="Kutub Selatan">kutub Selatan</a> magnetiknya. Aurora yang terjadi di daerah sebelah Utara dikenal dengan nama <b>Aurora Borealis</b> (IPA /ɔˈɹɔɹə bɔɹiˈælɪs/), yang dinamai bersempena Dewi Fajar Rom, <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aurora_(mitos)&action=edit&redlink=1" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top" title="Aurora (mitos) (halaman belum tersedia)">Aurora</a>, dan nama Yunani untuk angin utara, <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemoi" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top" title="Anemoi">Boreas</a>. Ini karena di <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eropa" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top" title="Eropa">Eropa</a>, aurora sering terlihat kemerah-merahan di ufuk utara seolah-olah Matahari akan terbit dari arah tersebut. Aurora borealis selalu terjadi di antara September dan Oktober dan Maret dan April. Fenomena aurora di sebelah Selatan yang dikenal dengan <b>Aurora Australis</b> mempunyai sifat-sifat yang serupa.Tapi kadang-kadang aurora muncul di puncak gunung di iklim tropis.</p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="amp-wp-d528d8c" style="color: magenta;"><b>Aurora Borealis (Kutub Utara)</b></span><br /><a href="https://anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-borealis.jpg" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top"><amp-img alt="" class="alignleft size-medium wp-image-478 amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-element i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined i-amphtml-built i-amphtml-layout" height="199" i-amphtml-auto-lightbox-visited="" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic" layout="intrinsic" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-borealis.jpg?w=300&h=199" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-borealis.jpg?w=300&h=199 300w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-borealis.jpg?w=600&h=398 600w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-borealis.jpg?w=150&h=100 150w" style="display: inline-block; float: left; margin: 0px 16px 1em 0px; max-width: 100%; overflow: hidden; position: relative;" title="aurora borealis" width="300"><i-amphtml-sizer class="i-amphtml-sizer" slot="i-amphtml-svc" style="display: block; max-width: 100%;"><img alt="" aria-hidden="true" class="i-amphtml-intrinsic-sizer" role="presentation" src="data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,<svg height="199px" width="300px" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" version="1.1"/>" style="display: block; max-width: 100%;" /></i-amphtml-sizer><img alt="" class="i-amphtml-fill-content i-amphtml-replaced-content" decoding="async" sizes="(max-width: 393px) 300px, 100vw" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-borealis.jpg?w=300&h=199" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-borealis.jpg?w=300&h=199 300w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-borealis.jpg?w=600&h=398 600w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-borealis.jpg?w=150&h=100 150w" style="border: medium none; display: block; height: 0px; inset: 0px; margin: auto; max-height: 100%; max-width: 100%; min-height: 100%; min-width: 100%; object-fit: contain; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 0px;" title="aurora borealis" /></amp-img></a>Nama aurora borealis diambil dari nama Dewi Fajar Romawi, Aurora, dan nama Yunani untuk angin Utara, Boreas. Dinamai seperti itu karena di Eropa aurora sering terlihat kemerah-merahan di ufuk Utara seakan-akan matahari akan terbit dari ufuk Utara. Aurora borealis selalu terjadi di antara bulan September dan Oktober serta Maret dan April.</p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="amp-wp-d528d8c" style="color: magenta;"><b>Aurora Australis (Kutub Selatan)</b></span><br /><a href="https://anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-australis.jpg" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top"><amp-img alt="" class="alignright size-medium wp-image-479 amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-element i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined i-amphtml-built i-amphtml-layout" height="200" i-amphtml-auto-lightbox-visited="" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic" layout="intrinsic" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-australis.jpg?w=300&h=200" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-australis.jpg?w=300&h=200 300w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-australis.jpg?w=600&h=400 600w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-australis.jpg?w=150&h=100 150w" style="display: inline-block; float: right; margin: 0px 0px 1em 16px; max-width: 100%; overflow: hidden; position: relative;" title="aurora australis" width="300"><i-amphtml-sizer class="i-amphtml-sizer" slot="i-amphtml-svc" style="display: block; max-width: 100%;"><img alt="" aria-hidden="true" class="i-amphtml-intrinsic-sizer" role="presentation" src="data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,<svg height="200px" width="300px" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" version="1.1"/>" style="display: block; max-width: 100%;" /></i-amphtml-sizer><img alt="" class="i-amphtml-fill-content i-amphtml-replaced-content" decoding="async" sizes="(max-width: 393px) 300px, 100vw" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-australis.jpg?w=300&h=200" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-australis.jpg?w=300&h=200 300w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-australis.jpg?w=600&h=400 600w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/aurora-australis.jpg?w=150&h=100 150w" style="border: medium none; display: block; height: 0px; inset: 0px; margin: auto; max-height: 100%; max-width: 100%; min-height: 100%; min-width: 100%; object-fit: contain; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 0px;" title="aurora australis" /></amp-img></a>Miss aurora yang satu ini hanya bisa dilihat dari daerah dengan garis lintang selatan yang tinggi di daerah Antartika, Amerika Selatan, dan Australia. Australis adalah nama latin untuk “Selatan”.</p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="amp-wp-d528d8c" style="color: magenta;"><b>Warna Aurora</b></span><br />Warna-warni yang ditampakkan oleh aurora disebabkan karena benturan partikel dan molekul atau atom yang berbeda. Warna yang muncul dipengaruhi oleh komposisi atmosfer dan ketinggiannya sehingga warna yang dihasilkan bisa berubah-ubah. Bila partikel yang bersangkutan berbenturan dengan oksigen pada ketinggian 140 km, warna aurora menjadi biru atau ungu. Bila partikel yang bersangkutan berbenturan dengan oksigen dan nitrogen pada ketinggian 100 km, warna aurora menjadi kemerah-merahan. Bila partikel yang bersangkutan berbenturan dengan hidrogen pada ketinggian 300 km, warna aurora menjadi hijau atau merah.</p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="amp-wp-d528d8c" style="color: magenta;"><b>Aurora di Planet Lain</b></span></p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/jupiter-aurora2.jpg" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top"><amp-img alt="" class="aligncenter size-medium wp-image-484 amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-element i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined i-amphtml-built i-amphtml-layout amp-notsupported" height="225" i-amphtml-auto-lightbox-visited="" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic" layout="intrinsic" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/jupiter-aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=225" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w330/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/jupiter-aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=225 330w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w680/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/jupiter-aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=225 680w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w820/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/jupiter-aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=225 820w" style="display: block; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; overflow: hidden; position: relative; text-align: center;" title="jupiter aurora" width="300"><i-amphtml-sizer class="i-amphtml-sizer" slot="i-amphtml-svc" style="display: block; max-width: 100%;"></i-amphtml-sizer><img alt="" class="i-amphtml-fill-content i-amphtml-replaced-content i-amphtml-ghost" decoding="async" sizes="(max-width: 393px) 361px, 100vw" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/jupiter-aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=225" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w330/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/jupiter-aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=225 330w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w680/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/jupiter-aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=225 680w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w820/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/jupiter-aurora2.jpg?w=300&h=225 820w" style="border: medium none; display: block; height: 0px; inset: 0px; margin: auto; max-height: 100%; max-width: 100%; min-height: 100%; min-width: 100%; object-fit: contain; padding: 0px; position: absolute; visibility: hidden; width: 0px;" title="jupiter aurora" /></amp-img></a></p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/saturnus-aurora1.jpg" style="color: #0a89c0;" target="_top"><amp-img alt="" class="aligncenter size-medium wp-image-485 amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-element i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined i-amphtml-built i-amphtml-layout amp-notsupported" height="183" i-amphtml-auto-lightbox-visited="" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic" layout="intrinsic" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/saturnus-aurora1.jpg?w=300&h=183" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w330/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/saturnus-aurora1.jpg?w=300&h=183 330w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w680/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/saturnus-aurora1.jpg?w=300&h=183 680w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w820/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/saturnus-aurora1.jpg?w=300&h=183 820w" style="display: block; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; overflow: hidden; position: relative; text-align: center;" title="saturnus aurora" width="300"><i-amphtml-sizer class="i-amphtml-sizer" slot="i-amphtml-svc" style="display: block; max-width: 100%;"></i-amphtml-sizer><img alt="" class="i-amphtml-fill-content i-amphtml-replaced-content i-amphtml-ghost" decoding="async" sizes="(max-width: 393px) 361px, 100vw" src="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/i/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/saturnus-aurora1.jpg?w=300&h=183" srcset="https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w330/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/saturnus-aurora1.jpg?w=300&h=183 330w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w680/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/saturnus-aurora1.jpg?w=300&h=183 680w, https://anggieningtyas-files-wordpress-com.cdn.ampproject.org/ii/w820/s/anggieningtyas.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/saturnus-aurora1.jpg?w=300&h=183 820w" style="border: medium none; display: block; height: 0px; inset: 0px; margin: auto; max-height: 100%; max-width: 100%; min-height: 100%; min-width: 100%; object-fit: contain; padding: 0px; position: absolute; visibility: hidden; width: 0px;" title="saturnus aurora" /></amp-img></a></p><p class="amp-wp-3ab04b3" style="background-color: white; color: #353535; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;">Bumi hanyalah salah satu planet di alam semesta ini. Planet-planet lain pun memiliki medan magnetik. Pancaran solar wind yang mencapai medan magnetik planet-planet ini akan menyebabkan terbentuknya aurora di planet yang bersangkutan dengan proses yang sama dengan proses terjadinya aurora di bumi. Aurora juga akan terbentuk pada daerah dengan medan magnetik tertinggi.</p><span class="fullpost">
</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-73715826518968500042021-01-03T18:20:00.004-08:002021-01-03T18:38:47.413-08:00Batuan Pembentuk Kerak Bumi<span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 27.6px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmfcvU79JBHlXK0VK_6f7a5yjiPiJ50WkeCb4V9JPhEjV3XEKXaOOWaOBUYjHDKdVmZOQe2jNK6kBlk6zDBMpWOUmbMR6tEbGU2jLf7ufLM9QmJDXsFycjxZcmNqW-Gt3yPUsQ8mePB7Qk/s610/batuan-penyusun-litosfer.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="380" data-original-width="610" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmfcvU79JBHlXK0VK_6f7a5yjiPiJ50WkeCb4V9JPhEjV3XEKXaOOWaOBUYjHDKdVmZOQe2jNK6kBlk6zDBMpWOUmbMR6tEbGU2jLf7ufLM9QmJDXsFycjxZcmNqW-Gt3yPUsQ8mePB7Qk/s320/batuan-penyusun-litosfer.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><span><a name='more'></a></span></span></b></span><div class="post-header" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #2e2e2e; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 10px; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><div class="post-head" style="margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s;"><h1 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name headline" style="color: black; font-family: Oswald; font-size: 32px; font-weight: 400; line-height: 44px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s;">Rock Cycle ( Siklus Batuan )</h1><ol><li><strong style="font-weight: 600;">Awal Mula Batuan</strong></li></ol>
<ol><li>Semua batuan pada mulanya dari magma</li><li>Magma adalah benda cair, panas, pijar yang bersuhu diatas 1000˚C</li><li>Lava adalah magma yang sudah muncul ke permukaan</li><li>Lahar adalah lava yang bercampur dengan gas, meterial piroklastik, air, tanah tumbuhan</li></ol>
<p><img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/b7095-picture2.jpg?w=604" /></p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Magma keluar di permukaan bumi antara lain melalui puncak gunung
berapi. Gunung berapi ada di daratan ada pula yang di lautan. Magma yang
sudah mencapai permukaan bumi akan membeku. Magma yang membeku kemudian
menjadi batuan beku. Batuan beku muka bumi selama beribu-ribu tahun
lamanya dapat hancur terurai selama terkena panas, hujan, serta
aktivitas tumbuhan dan hewan. Selanjutnya hancuran batuan tersebut
tersangkut oleh air, angin atau hewan ke tempat lain untuk diendapkan.
Hancuran batuan yang diendapkan disebut batuan endapan atau batuan
sedimen. Baik batuan sedimen atau beku dapat berubah bentuk dalam waktu
yang sangat lama karena adanya perubahan temperatur dan tekanan. Batuan
yang berubah bentuk disebut batuan malihan atau batuan metamorf.</p>
<p><span id="more-568"></span></p>
<ul><li><strong>Batuan Beku</strong></li></ul>
<div>
<div>Dimulai dari batuan beku, batuan beku adalah batuan cair pijar atau
magma dari dalam bumi yang membeku. Berdasarkan tempat proses
membekunya batuan-batuan beku tersebut terdiri atas :</div>
<div> Batuan dalam, membeku secara perlahan-lahan di dalam</div>
<div> Batuan korok, membeku di daerah korok</div>
<div> Batuan leleran, membeku secara tiba-tiba di permukaan bumi</div>
<div>Batuan beku dibedakan berdasarkan sifat kimiawinya yaitu :</div>
<div> Batuan asam, mengandung banyak asam salisilat merupakan
senyawa silikon dan oksida, mengandung kwarsa berwarna keputih-putihan.</div>
<div> Batuan basa, kadar asam salisilatnya rendah banyak mengandung magnesium dan besi, warnanya gelap/hitam</div>
<div>Berikut adalah contoh-contoh batuan beku :</div>
<ol><li>Granit</li></ol>
<div> <img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batugranit.png?w=604" /></div>
<div>Proses terbentuk : Batuan ini terbentuk dari hasil
pembekuan magma berkomposisi asam yang membeku di dalam dapur magma,
sehingga batu ini merupakan jenis batu beku dalam.</div>
<div>Massa jenis : sekitar 2,2 – 2,3 gram/cm<sup>3</sup></div>
<div> Warna : putih, abu-abu, atau campuran keduanya.</div>
<div> Batuan ini banyak di temukan di daerah pinggiran pantai dan di pinggiran sungai besar ataupun di dasar sungai.</div>
<div>Batu Granit dapat digunakan sebgai :</div>
<div> Batu bahan bangunan</div>
<div> Monumen</div>
<div> Jembatan</div>
<div> Jebagai dekorasi</div>
<div> Bahan tegel</div>
<div> dll.</div>
<blockquote><p>2. Gabro</p></blockquote>
<div> <img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batugabro.png?w=604" /></div>
<div>Proses Terbentuk : terbentuk dari magma yang membeku di dalam gunung. Termasuk batuan <em id="__mceDel">dalam</em></div>
<div>Massa Jenis :2,9 – 3,21 gram/cm<sup>3</sup></div>
<div>Warna : Gelap kehijauan , coklat bercampur putih</div>
<div>Karakteristik lain : Batuan gabro berwarna gelap
kehijauan, menunjukkan kandungan silika rendah sehingga magma asal
bersifat basa. Struktur batuan ini adalah massive, tidak terdapat rongga
atau lubang udara maupun retakan-retakan. Batuan ini masih segar dan
tidak pernah terkena gaya endogen yang dapat meninggalkan retakan pada
batuan.Batuan ini memeiliki tekstur fanerik karena mineral-mineralnya
dapat dilihat langsung secara kasat mata dan mineral yang besar
menunjukkan bahwa mineral tersebut terbentuk pada suhu pembekuan yang
relatif lambat sehingga bentuk mineralnya besar-besar.Derajat
kristalisasi sempurna, bahwa batuan ini secara keseluruhan tersusun atas
kristal sehingga disebut holocrystalline. Tekstur seperti ini
menunjukkan proses pembentukan magma yang lambat. Ion-ion penyusun
mineral pada batuan, dalam lingkungan bertekanan tinggi dan temperatur
yang luar biasa tinggi dapat bergerak sangat cepat dan menyusun dirinya
sedemikian rupa sehingga membentuk suatu bentuk yang teratur dan semakin
berukuran besar.</div>
<div>3. Andesit</div>
<div> <img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batuandesit.png?w=604" /></div>
<div>Proses terbentuk :Batuan ini berasal dari lelehan lava gunung
merapi yang meletus, batu Andesit terbentuk (membeku) ketika temperatur
lava yang meleleh turun antara 900 sampai dengan 1,100 derajat Celsius.
Merupakan jenis batuan beku luar.</div>
<div>Massa Jenis : 2,8 – 3 gram/cm<sup>3</sup></div>
<div>Warna : agak gelap (abu-abu tua).</div>
<div>Batu andesit sering digunakan sebagai :</div>
<div> Nisan kuburan</div>
<div> Cobek</div>
<div> Lumping jamu</div>
<div> Cungkup (kap lampu taman)</div>
<div> Arca untuk hiasan</div>
<div> Batu pembuat candi</div>
<div> Sarkofagus</div>
<div> Punden berundak</div>
<div> Meja batu</div>
<div>Pusat kerajinan dan pemotongan batu Andesit juga terdapat di daerah
Cirebon dan Majalengka Jawa Barat. Karena di daerah ini banyak terdapat
perbukitan yang merupakan daerah tambang Batu Andesit. Untuk batu
Andesit di daerah cirebon umum nya bewarna abu-abu dan terdiri dari 2
Jenis utama: Andesit Bintik dan Andesit Polos.</div>
<div>4.Diorit</div>
<div> <img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batudiorit.png?w=604" /></div>
<div>Proses terbentuk : Merupakan batuan hasil terobosan batuan
beku (instruksi) yang Terbentuk dari hasil peleburan lantai samudra yang
bersifat mafic pada suatu subduction zone. biasanya diproduksi pada
busur lingkaran volkanis, dan membentuk suatu gunung didalam cordilleran
( subduction sepanjang tepi suatu benua, seperti pada deretan
Pegunungan). Terdapat emplaces yang besar berupa batholiths ( banyak
beribu-ribu mil-kwadrat) dan mengantarkan magma sampai pada permukaan
untuk menghasilkan gunung api gabungan dengan lahar andesite. Termasuk
jenis batuan beku dalam</div>
<div>Massa jenis : 2,8 – 2,9 gram/cm<sup>3</sup></div>
<div>Warna : Kelabu bercampur putih, atau hitam bercampur putih</div>
<div>Kegunaan : batu diorit ini dapat dijadikan sebagai
batu ornamen dinding maupun lantai bangunan gedung atau untuk batu belah
untuk pondasi bangunan / jalan raya.</div>
<div>5. Basalt</div>
<div> <img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batubasalt.png?w=604" /></div>
<div>Proses Terbentuk : Berasal dari hasil pembekuan magma
berkomposisi basa di permukaan atau dekat permukaan bumi. Biasanya
membentuk lempeng samudera di dunia. Mempunyai ukuran butir yang sangat
baik sehingga kehadiran mineral mineral tidak terlihat.</div>
<div>Massa jenis : 2,7 – 3 gram/cm<sup>3</sup></div>
<div>Warna : Gelap</div>
<div>Karakteristik lain : Batuan Basalt lazimnya bersifat
masif dan keras, bertekstur afanitik, terdiri atas mineral gelas
vulkanik, plagioklas, piroksin. Amfibol dan mineral hitam. Kandungan
mineral Vulcanik ini hanya dapat terlihat pada jenis batuan basalt yang
berukuran butir kuarsa, yaitu jenis dari batuan basalt yang bernama
gabbro. Berdasarkan komposisi kimianya, basalt dapat dibedakan menjadi
dua tipe, yaitu basalt alkali dan basalt tholeitik. Perbedaan di antara
kedua tipe basalt itu dapat dilihat dari kandungan Na2O dan K2O. Untuk
konsentrasi SiO2 yang sama, basalt alkali memiliki kandungan Na2O dan
K2O lebih tinggi daripada basalt tholeitik.</div>
<div>Manfaat : Basalt kerap digunakan sebagai
bahan baku dalam industri poles, bahan bangunan / pondasi bangunan
(gedung, jalan, jembatan, dll) dan sebagai agregat.</div>
<blockquote><p>6. Obsidian</p></blockquote>
<div><img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batuobsidian.png?w=604" /></div>
<div> Proses Terbentuk :Obsidian merupakan batuan yang
terbentuk oleh hasil kegiatan erupsi gunung api bersusunan asam hingga
basa yang pembekuannya sangat cepat sehingga akan terbentuk gelas atau
kaca daripada kristal dominan. Obsidian adalah batuan yang disusun
secara keseluruhan dari kaca amorf dan sedikit kristal feldspar, mineral
hitam dan kuarsa.</div>
<div>Massa Jenis : 2,36 – 2,5 gram/cm<sup>3</sup></div>
<div>Warna : Warnanya bening seperti kaca dan
warnanya kadang-kadang hitam mulus, merah tua, agak hijau atau abu-abu.
Batu ini jarang yang berwarna kuning atau merah putih atau biru. Batu
obsidian sering ditemukan dalam keadaan mengkilau mulus walaupun belum
dipoles. Batu obsidian terbuat dari 70% silicon dioxide bahkan lebih dan
jika tercampur mineral mineral tertentu warnanya akan berubah.</div>
<div>Karakteristik lain : Batu obsidian mempunyai nilai keras
5-5.5 berdasarkan daftar keras Mohs dan termasuk batu mulia tanggung.</div>
<div>Manfaat :</div>
<div> Dapat dijadikan sebagai perhiasan cincin</div>
<div> Dijadikan kerajinan</div>
<div> Di Itali, Perancis dan Belanda batu ini dipercayai sebagai jimat pengusir roh jahat yang harus dimiliki di tiap rumah.</div>
<blockquote><p>7. Pumice (batu apung)</p></blockquote>
<div> <img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batuapung.png?w=604" /></div>
<p>Proses Terbentuk : Batu apung merupakan hasil material erupsi gunung api yang membeku<br />
ketika didalamnya masih terdapat udara sehingga mempunyai sifat titik<br />
berongga-rongga tersebar secara tidak merata. Batu apung mengandung<br />
silika tinggi, dan termasuk jenis batuan beku luar.</p>
<div>Massa Jenis : dibawah 1 gram/cm<sup>3</sup></div>
<div>Warna : Putih, dan coklat muda</div>
<div>Karakteristik lain : dapat terapung di air,
kedap suara, batuapung juga tahan terhadap api, kondensi, jamur dan
panas.</div>
<div>Manfaat : Dalam sektor industri
lain, batu apung digunakan sebagai bahan pengisi (filler),
pemoles/penggosok (polishing), pembersih (cleaner), stonewashing,
abrasif, isolator temperatur tinggi dan lain-lain.</div>
<div>8. Diorit</div>
<div>
<p><a href="http://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/2-diorit.jpg"><img alt="" height="225" src="https://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/2-diorit.jpg?w=300&h=225" title="2. DIORIT" width="300" /></a></p>
<p>Batuan ini bertekstur feneris, mengandung feldspar plagioklas
calsiksodik dalam jumlah yang besar dengan tipe sodik yang banyak.
Plagioklasnya melebihi ortoklas, kwarsa tidak ada, tetapi mengandung
augit dalam jumlah sedikit. Harnbledia biasanya lebih banyak dari
biotit. Diorite sangat mirip dengan gabro, tetapi diorit plagioklasnya
lebih asam (sodik) daripada labradorit. Batuan dengan plagioklas yang
lebih basa disebut dengan gabro. Jika banyak penokris disebut dengan
porfir diorit. diorit terdiri dari kurang lebih 65% plagioklas dan 35%
mineral silikat gelap seperti biotit dan augit. Mineral-mineral
accesorisnya kwarsa, apotik, kalsit, klorit, granit, dan epidot.
Varietas yang umum adalah diorite hornblende. Warna diorit cerah abu-abu
gelap hijau keabu-abuan.</p>
<p>9. Liparit</p>
<p><a href="http://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/4-liparit.jpg"><img alt="" height="225" src="https://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/4-liparit.jpg?w=300&h=225" title="4. LIPARIT" width="300" /></a></p>
<p>Lapirit merupakan batuan bertekstur porfiris dan umumnya berwarna
putih, mineral pembentuknya feldspar, kuarsa, biotit dan mungkin juga
mineral berwarna gelap.</p>
<p>9. Dasit</p>
<p><a href="http://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/7-dasit.jpg"><img alt="" height="225" src="https://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/7-dasit.jpg?w=300&h=225" title="7. DASIT" width="300" /></a></p>
<p>Dasit merupakan batuan yang memiliki ciri-ciri berwarna abu-abu
terang, mineral plagioklas berbutir kasar dalam masa dasar lebih halus.
Dasit mengandung 15-20% kwarsa, kurang lebih 60% feldaspar dan 10-20%
biotit atau hornblande. Mineral silikat ada dalam jumlah sedikit.
Misalnya biotit, hornblende, dan augit. Jika panerisnya plagioklas atau
kwarsa banyak, disebut dengan porfir dan dasit. Masa dasar dari batuan
ini biasanya berbutir halus, tetapi dapat juga secara gradual menjadi
glass.</p>
<p>10. Skoria</p>
</div>
<p><a href="http://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/8-skoria.jpg"><img alt="" height="225" src="https://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/8-skoria.jpg?w=300&h=225" title="8. SKORIA" width="300" /></a></p>
<p>Skoria merupakan batuan yang terbentuk jika air dan
gelombang-gelombang gas lainnya keluar melalui lava yang mampat (stiff
lava), yang luabang-lubangnya lebih besar kalau dibandingkan dengan
purnice. Warna skoria coklat kemerahan sampai abu-abu gelap dan hitam.</p>
<p>11. Tufa Gelas</p>
<p><a href="http://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/14-tufa-gelas.jpg"><img alt="" height="225" src="https://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/14-tufa-gelas.jpg?w=300&h=225" title="14. TUFA GELAS" width="300" /></a></p>
<p>Tufa Gelas merupakan batuan piroklastik yang disusun oleh material
hasil gunung api yang banyak mengandung debu vulkanik dan mineral gelas,
dengan warna putih kekurangan, abu-abu dan kuning kecoklatan. Kegunaan
digunakan sebagai timbunan.<br />
<strong>B. BATUAN SEDIMEN</strong></p>
<div>Batuan endapan atau batuan sedimen adalah salah satu dari tiga
kelompok utama batuan (bersama dengan batuan beku dan batuan
metamorfosis) yang terbentuk melalui tiga cara utama: pelapukan batuan
lain (clastic); pengendapan (deposition) karena aktivitas biogenik; dan
pengendapan (precipitation) dari larutan. Jenis batuan umum seperti batu
kapur, batu pasir, dan lempung, termasuk dalam batuan endapan. Batuan
endapan meliputi 75% dari permukaan bumi.</div>
<div>Batuan sedimen (batuan endapan) adalah batuan yang terjadi akibat
pengendapan materi hasil erosi. Sekitar 80% permukaan benua tertutup
oleh batuan sedimen. Materi hasil erosi terdiri atas berbagai jenis
partikel yaitu ada yang halus, kasar, berat dan ada juga yang ringan.
Cara pengangkutannya pun bermacam-macam seperti terdorong (traction),
terbawa secara melompat-lompat (saltion), terbawa dalam bentuk suspensi,
dan ada pula yang larut (salution). Klasifikasi lebiih lanjut seperti
berikut:</div>
<div>Berdasarkan proses pengendapannya</div>
<div> batuan sedimen klastik</div>
<div> batuan sedimen kimiawi</div>
<div> batuan sedimen organik</div>
<div>Berdasarkan tenaga alam yang mengangkut</div>
<div> batuan sedimen aerik</div>
<div> batuan sedimen aquatik</div>
<div> batuan sedimen marin</div>
<div> batuan sedimen glastik</div>
<div>Berdasarkan tempat endapannya</div>
<div> batuan sedimen limnik</div>
<div> batuan sedimen fluvial</div>
<div> batuan sedimen marine</div>
<div> batuan sedimen teistrik</div>
<div>Penamaan batuan sedimen biasanya berdasarkan besar butir penyusun
batuan tersebut. Penamaan tersebut adalah: breksi, konglomerat,
batupasir, batulanau, batulempung, stalaktit dan stalakmit, moraine</div>
<p>Berikut adalah contoh-contoh dan karakteristik dari batu apung :</p>
<p>1. Konglomerat</p>
<div> <img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/konglomerat.jpg?w=604" /></div>
<p>Proses Terbentuk :Konglomerat merupakan suatu bentukan
fragmen dari proses sedimentasi, batuan yang berbutir kasar, terdiri
atas fragmen dengan bentuk membundar dengan ukuran lebih besar dari 2mm
yang berada ditengah-tengah semen yang tersusun oleh batupasir dan
diperkuat & dipadatkan lagi kerikil. Dalam pembentukannya
membutuhkan energi yang cukup besar untuk menggerakan fragmen yang cukup
besar biasanya terjadi pada sistem sungai dan pantai.</p>
<div>Warna : berwarna warni</div>
<div>Manfaat : Biasanya batuan tersebut menjadi
batuan penyimpan hidrokarbon (reservoir rocks) atau bisa juga menjadi
batuan induk sebagai penghasil hidrokarbon (source rocks).</div>
<p>2. Batu Pasir</p>
<div> <img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batupasir.jpg?w=604" /></div>
<p>Proses Terbentuk :Batupasir adalah suatu batuan sedimen
klastik yang dimana partikel penyusunya kebanyakan berupa butiran
berukuran pasir. Kebanyakan batupasir dibentuk dari butiran-butiran yang
terbawa oleh pergerakan air, seperti ombak pada suatu pantai atau
saluran di suatu sungai. Butirannya secara khas di semen bersama-sama
oleh tanah kerikil atau kalsit untuk membentuk batupasir tersebut.
Batupasir paling umum terdiri atas butir kwarsa sebab kwarsa adalah
suatu mineral yang umum yang bersifat menentang laju arus.</p>
<div>Warna : Coklat dan putih</div>
<div>Manfaat : Batupasir mempunyai banyak kegunaan
didalam industri konstruksi sebagai suatu kumpulan dan batu-tembok.
batupasir hasil galian dapat digunakan sebagai material di dalam
pembuatan gelas/kaca.</div>
<p>3. Breksi</p>
<div><img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batubreksi.png?w=604" /></div>
<div> Karakteristik : Breksi merupakan batuan sedimen klastik
yang memiliki ukuran butir yang cukup besar (diameter lebih dari dua
milimeter) dengan tersusun atas batuan dengan fragmen menyudut (tajam).
Ruang antara fragmen besar bisa diisi dengan matriks partikel yang lebih
kecil atau semen mineral yang mengikat batu itu bersama-sama. Spesimen
yang ditunjukkan di atas memiliki ukuran garis tengah sekitar dua inci
(lima sentimeter).</div>
<div>Warna : merah kecoklatan, keemasan, coklat</div>
<div>Manfaat : sebagai Hiasan Bisa, misalnya di ukir hingga halus membentuk vas bunga, meja kecil, atau asbak.</div>
<p>4. Stalakmit dan Stalagmit</p>
<div> <img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/stalaktitdanstalagmit.png?w=604" /></div>
<p>Proses Terbentuknya : Stalaktit dan Stalakmit adalah bentukan
alam khas daerah Karst. Air yang larut di daerah karst akan masuk ke
lobang-lobang (doline) kemudian turun ke gua dan menetes-netes dari atap
gua ke dasar gua. Nah tetesan-tetesan air yang mengandung kapur ini
lama-lama kapurnya membeku dan menumpuk sedikit demi sedikit lalu
berubah jadi batuan kapur yang bentuknya runcing-runcing. Stalaktit
adalah batu yang terbentuk di atap gua, bentuknya meruncing ke bawah,
sedangkan stalakmit adalah batu yang terbentuk di dasar gua bentuknya
meruncing ke atas.</p>
<div>Warna : kuning, coklat, krem, keemasan, putih</div>
<div>Manfaat : sebagai keindahan alam (biasanya di gua-gua), dapat di jadikan hiasan rumah.</div>
<div>Tempat : Sangat sering di temukan di daerah gua, ada juga yang di sekitar air terjun.</div>
<p>5. Batu Lempung</p>
<div> <img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batulempung.png?w=604" /></div>
<p>Proses Terjadinya : Type utama batulempung menurut
terjadinya terdiri dari lempung residu dan lempung letakan (sedimen),
lempung residu adalah sejenis lempung yang terbentuk karena proses
pelapukan (alterasi) batuan beku dan ditemukan disekitar batuan
induknya. Kemudian material lempung ini mengalami proses diagenesa
sehingga membentuk batu lempung.</p>
<div>Warna : Coklat, keemasan, coklat, merah, abu-abu</div>
<div>Manfaat : Dapat dijadikan kerajinan, seperti asbak, patung, celengan, dll.</div>
<div>Tempat : Sering ditemukan di Pinggiran Sungai ataupun pinggiran danau.</div>
<div>6. Batu gamping (batu kapur)</div>
<div>
<p><a href="http://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/15-batu-gamping.jpg"><img alt="" height="225" src="https://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/15-batu-gamping.jpg?w=300&h=225" title="15. BATU GAMPING" width="300" /></a></p>
<p>Batu Gamping merupakan batuan carbonat yang paling banyak terdapat,
demngan kenampakan textur aphanitik sampai phanero-cristalin. Warna
putih keabu-abuan, abu-abu, abu-abu gelap, hitam, kuning, coklat, dan
lainnya oleh adanya kotoran-kotoran, oksid besi dan zat-zat organik.
Limestone berbutir mulus, pecahannya conchoidal. Bila ditetesi HCL
memercik/berbuih. Mudah larut terutama dalam air yang mengandung CO<sub>2</sub> sehingga
terjadi lubang-lubang, celah-celah, diaklas- diaklas dan lainnya. tebal
dapat dari beberpa centimeter sampai beberapa ratus meter. Beberapa
limestone seluruhnya dapat terdiri dari butir-butir calcit. Keras dari
limestone sangat berbeda-beda, ada yang keras dan ada yang lunak, agak
keras, dan sebaginya, tergantung dari texturnya. Selama proses pelapukan
dari limestone, calcium carbonatnya dapat terlarut, dan yang tertinggal
adalah kotoran-kotorannya, yang kemudian dapat terkonsentrasi dan
membentuk clay atau loams yang berwarna merah atau kuning, oleh aksidasi
dari mineral-mineral oksida besi.</p>
<p>Ciri-ciri: Warna putih keabu-abuan, agak lunak, dan bila ditetesi asam membentuk gas karbondioksida.</p>
<p><img alt="Jenis-Jenis Batuan Sedimen" src="https://i0.wp.com/www.drzpost.com/gambar2/jenis-batuan-sedimen-kapur.jpg" />Terbentuk
dari hasil pemadatan cangkang hewan lunak atau hewan laut yang telah
mati. Cangkang tersebut terdiri dari kapur tidak musnah.</p>
<p>7. Travertin</p>
</div>
<p><a href="http://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/16-travertin.jpg"><img alt="" height="225" src="https://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/16-travertin.jpg?w=300&h=225" title="16. TRAVERTIN" width="300" /></a></p>
<p>Calcium carbonat tidak larut dalam air murni, tetapi bila aornya mengandung CO<sub>2</sub> maka calcium carbonat itu mudah berubah menjadi biocarbonat. Jadi dibawah tekanan atmosfer, air yang banyak mengandung CO<sub>2</sub> secara
perlahan-lahan melarutkan calcium carbonat, terutama bila air tersebut
berasal dari tempat yang dalam dengan tekanan yang lebih besar dan
kandungan CO<sub>2</sub> nya lebih banyak, maka daya melarutkan lebih
tinggi. Bila larutan tersebut mencapai permukaan bumi dibawah tekanan
atmosfer, calcium carbonatnya segera diendapkan oleh proses evaporasi,
dan proses ini dapat dipercepat oleh adanya kegiatan dari
tumbuh-tumbuhan (algae). Calcum carbonat yang doiendapkan di
mulut/lubang mata air itu disebut travertine. Pada gua-gua kapur,
terjadi pula pengendapan dari calcium carbonat oleh tetesan-tetesan air
secara perlahan-lahan yang terdiri dari kristal-kristal halus dan
kompak, yang disebut dengan dripstone. Warna putih, kuning, atau
cokelat. Struktur fibrous atau konsentris. Yang tumbuh dari bawah
disebut stalagnite.</p>
<p>8. Serpin</p>
<p><a href="http://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/17-serpih.jpg"><img alt="" height="225" src="https://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/17-serpih.jpg?w=300&h=225" title="17. SERPIH" width="300" /></a></p>
<p>Serpin berasal dari lumpur yang mengendap. Terdiri dari
butiran-butiran batu lempung atau tanah liat, pada umumnya sepertiga
terdiri atas kuarsa, sepertiga bahan tanah, sepertiga bahan lain
termasuk karbonat, besi oksida, feldspar, dan zat organik. Berwarna
abu-abu kehijauan, merah, atau kuning. Dimanfaatkan sebagi bahan
bangunan. Berasal dari endapan hasil pelapukan batuan tanah liat.</p>
<p><strong>C. BATU METAMORF</strong></p>
<div>Batuan metamorf adalah batuan yang terbentuk dari proses
metamorfisme batuan-batuan sebelumnya karena perubahan temperatur dan
tekanan. Metamorfisme terjadi pada keadaan padat (padat ke padat)
meliputi proses kristalisasi, reorientasi dan pembentukan
mineral-mineral baru serta terjadi dalam lingkungan yang sama sekali
berbeda dengan lingkungan batuan asalnya terbentuk. Banyak mineral yang
mempunyai batas-batas kestabilan tertentu yang jika dikenakan tekanan
dan temperatur yang melebihi batas tersebut maka akan terjadi
penyesuaian dalam batuan dengan membentuk mineral-mineral baru yang
stabil. Disamping karena pengaruh tekanan dan temperatur, metamorfisme
juga dipengaruhi oleh fluida, dimana fluida (H<sub>2</sub>O) dalam
jumlah bervariasi di antara butiran mineral atau pori-pori batuan yang
pada umumnya mengandung ion terlarut akan mempercepat proses
metamorfisme.</div>
<div>Batuan metamorf memiliki beragam karakteristik. Karakteristik ini
dipengaruhi oleh beberapa faktor dalam pembentukan batuan tersebut ;</div>
<div> Komposisi mineral batuan asal</div>
<div> Tekanan dan temperatur saat proses metamorfisme</div>
<div> Pengaruh gaya tektonik</div>
<div> Pengaruh fluida</div>
<div>Pada pengklasifikasiannya berdasarkan struktur, batuan metamorf diklasifikasikan menjadi dua, yaitu :</div>
<div> oliasi, struktur planar pada batuan metamorf sebagai akibat
dari pengaruh tekanan diferensial (berbeda) pada saat proses
metamorfisme.</div>
<div> Non foliasi, struktur batuan metamorf yang tidak memperlihatkan penjajaran mineral-mineral dalam batuan tersebut.</div>
<div><b>Jenis-jenis Metamorfisme</b></div>
<div> Metamorfisme kontak/termal</div>
<div>Metamorfisme oleh temperatur tinggi pada intrusi magma atau ekstrusi lava.</div>
<div> Metamorfisme regional</div>
<div>Metamorfisme oleh kenaikan tekanan dan temperatur yang sedang, dan terjadi pada daerah yang luas.</div>
<div> Metamorfisme Dinamik</div>
<div>Metamorfisme akibat tekanan diferensial yang tinggi akibat pergerakan patahan lempeng.</div>
<p>Berikut adalah contoh dan karakteristik dari betuan metamorf :<br />
<b>1. </b><b>Gneiss (ganes)<br />
</b></p>
<div><img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batugnesis.png?w=604" /></div>
<div> Merupakan batuan yang terbentuk dari hasil metamorfosisme batuan
beku dalam temperatur dan tekanan yang tinggi. Dalam Gneiss dapat
diperoleh rekristalisasi dan foliasi dari kuarsa, feldspar, mika dan
amphibole.</div>
<div>Asal : Metamorfisme regional siltstone, shale, granit</div>
<div>Warna : Abu-abu</div>
<div>Ukuran butir : Medium – Coarse grained</div>
<div>Struktur : Foliated (Gneissic)</div>
<div>Komposisi : Kuarsa, feldspar, amphibole, mika</div>
<div>Derajat metamorfisme : Tinggi</div>
<div>Ciri khas : Kuarsa dan feldspar nampak berselang-seling dengan lapisan tipis kaya</div>
<div> amphibole dan mika.</div>
<div>
<p><a href="http://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/19-genes.jpg"><img alt="" height="225" src="https://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/19-genes.jpg?w=300&h=225" title="19. GENES" width="300" /></a></p>
<p>Ganes adalah batuan matemorf dengan kristal-kristal yang kasar,
biasanya berlapis-lapis akibat pemisahan mineral-mineral yang berbeda
sehingga membentuk foliasi sekunder yang kasar. Terbentuk pada tempat
yang dalam dan pada tingkat metamorfise, yang tinggi bersama-sama dengan
struktur pegunungan lipatan. Pada prinsipnya gneiss berasal dari batuan
beku silllicaous seperti granit, monozit kwarsa, syenite, dan
granodiorit, tetapi dapat juga dari rhyolit, tuff, arkosa dan batu pasir
feldspatik. Mineral-mineral utama pada gneis adalah kwarsa dan
feldspat, sedangkan mineral-mineral yang lain adalah, biotite, horblende
dan augite. Warna bervariasi tergantung pada warna mineral dominan yang
ada. Pelapisan disini dihasilkan oleh pergantian warna-warna mineral
yang terang dan gelap atau oleh perbedaan ukuran butir dengan pelapisan
yang tebal dan kasar ataupun tipis. Sering mengandung mineral-mineral
metamorf yang lain seperti garnet, epidot, tournaline, graphite, dan
silimanite. Jika batuan beku (sebagian bahn induknya) adalah sari batuan
mafic tertentu, mungkin greiss tersebut dapat berkembang manjadi
serpentine olivin, augite, horblede dan biotite. Jika bahan beku
(sebagian bahan induknya) dapat dikenal maka nama batuan dapat
ditentukan seperti misalnya : gabbro gneiss, syenite gneiss ataupun
granite gneiss. Gneiss yang berasal dari batuan sedimen, contohnya :
quatzite gneiss conglomerate gneiss, politic gneiss (dari sedimen clay)
dan calc gueniss (dari cilliceous limetone dan dolomite) gneiss yang
berbentuk oleh penerobosan mineral-mineral batuan beku kedalam folisasi
akan menghasilkan campuran batuan dalam bentuk dike yang tipis dari
material-material quartzfeldspathic. Ini disebut “injection” gneiss.
Batuan ini tersebar luas dan mungkin menempati bagian terbesar dari tipe
gneiss lainnya.</p>
</div>
<p>2. Sekis</p>
<div><img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batusekis.png?w=604" /></div>
<p>Schist (sekis) adalah batuan metamorf yang mengandung lapisan mika,
grafit, horndlende. Mineral pada batuan ini umumnya terpisah menjadi
berkas-berkas bergelombang yang diperlihatkan dengan kristal yang
mengkilap.</p>
<div>Asal : Metamorfisme siltstone, shale, basalt</div>
<div>Warna : Hitam, hijau, ungu</div>
<div>Ukuran butir : Fine – Medium Coarse</div>
<div>Struktur : Foliated (Schistose)</div>
<div>Komposisi : Mika, grafit, hornblende</div>
<div>Derajat metamorfisme : Intermediate – Tinggi</div>
<div>Ciri khas : Foliasi yang kadang bergelombang, terkadang terdapat kristal garnet</div>
<div>3. Marmer</div>
<div> <img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batumarmer.png?w=604" /></div>
<div>Terbentuk ketika batu gamping mendapat tekanan dan panas sehingga
mengalami perubahan dan rekristalisasi kalsit. Utamanya tersusun dari
kalsium karbonat. Marmer bersifat padat, kompak dan tanpa foliasi.</div>
<div>Asal : Metamorfisme batu gamping, dolostone</div>
<div>Warna : Bervariasi</div>
<div>Ukuran butir : Medium – Coarse Grained</div>
<div>Struktur : Non foliasi</div>
<div>Komposisi : Kalsit atau Dolomit</div>
<div>Derajat metamorfisme : Rendah – Tinggi</div>
<div>Ciri khas : Tekstur berupa butiran seperti gula, terkadang terdapat fosil, bereaksi dengan HCl.</div>
<div>
<p><a href="http://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/23-marmer.jpg"><img alt="" height="225" src="https://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/23-marmer.jpg?w=300&h=225" title="23. MARMER" width="300" /></a></p>
<p>Marmer adalah metamorfisme dari batuan kapur, baik itu batu kapur
kalsit maupun batu kapur dolomit. Terbentuknya terutama disebabkan oleh
reksistelisasi calsit. (dolomit) yang biasanya berbutir lebih kasar
daripada batu kapur aslinya. Marmer yang terbentuk oleh dolomitc disebut
marmer dolomit (dolomitic marble). Akibat proses metamorfos dan
rekristalisasi, pelapisan sering meliuk atau bahkan tidak terlihat sama
sekali. Umumnya marmer danmarmer dolomit terbentuk oleh metamorfisme
kontak atau regional dan dijumpai bersama-sama dengan phyllite, slate,
schist, dan metakwarsa. Struktur batu kapur sangat bervariasi dari yang
berbutir sangat halus hingga berbutir sangat kasar. Pada tipe-tipe
metamorfose kontak ditunjukan dari adanya orientasi kristal-kristal yang
memanjang sebagai hasil tekanan yang searah. Meneral-mineral aksesor
pada marmer banyak macamnya antara lain: tremolit, forserite,
periclose, diopside, wollastonite, brucite, spincl, felspar, dan garnet,
yang kesemuanya ini tergantung pada macam material batuan asalnya.
Warna yang ditimbulakn mulai dari cerah atau putih apabila terdiri dari
kalsit dan dolomit, tetapi bisa berwarna kelabu, merah, coklat atau
kombinasi warna tergantung pada mineral-mineral aksesornya.
Contoh-contoh batuan marmer yakni: breccia marble, tremolite marble,
graphite marble, talcose marble, phlogopite marble.</p>
</div>
<div> 4. Kuarsit</div>
<div> <img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batukuarsit.png?w=604" /></div>
<div>Adalah salah satu batuan metamorf yang keras dan kuat. Terbentuk
ketika batupasir (sandstone) mendapat tekanan dan temperatur yang
tinggi. Ketika batupasir bermetamorfosis menjadi kuarsit, butir-butir
kuarsa mengalami rekristalisasi, dan biasanya tekstur dan struktur asal
pada batupasir terhapus oleh proses metamorfosis .</div>
<div>Asal : Metamorfisme sandstone (batupasir)</div>
<div>Warna : Abu-abu, kekuningan, cokelat, merah</div>
<div>Ukuran butir : Medium coarse</div>
<div>Struktur : Non foliasi</div>
<div>Komposisi : Kuarsa</div>
<div>Derajat metamorfisme : Intermediate – Tinggi</div>
<div>Ciri khas : Lebih keras dibanding glass</div>
<div> 5.Milonit</div>
<div> <img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batumilonit.png?w=604" /></div>
<div>Milonit merupakan batuan metamorf kompak. Terbentuk oleh
rekristalisasi dinamis mineral-mineral pokok yang mengakibatkan
pengurangan ukuran butir-butir batuan. Butir-butir batuan ini lebih
halus dan dapat dibelah seperti schistose.</div>
<div>Asal : Metamorfisme dinamik</div>
<div>Warna : Abu-abu, kehitaman, coklat, biru</div>
<div>Ukuran butir : Fine grained</div>
<div>Struktur : Non foliasi</div>
<div>Komposisi : Kemungkinan berbeda untuk setiap batuan</div>
<div>Derajat metamorfisme : Tinggi</div>
<div>Ciri khas : Dapat dibelah-belah</div>
<div> 6. serpinit</div>
<div> <img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batuserpinit.png?w=604" /></div>
<div>Serpentinit, batuan yang terdiri atas satu atau lebih mineral
serpentine dimana mineral ini dibentuk oleh proses serpentinisasi
(serpentinization). Serpentinisasi adalah proses proses metamorfosis
temperatur rendah yang menyertakan tekanan dan air, sedikit silica mafic
dan batuan ultramafic teroksidasi dan ter-hidrolize dengan air menjadi
serpentinit.</div>
<div>Asal : Batuan beku basa</div>
<div>Warna : Hijau terang / gelap</div>
<div>Ukuran butir : Medium grained</div>
<div>Struktur : Non foliasi</div>
<div>Komposisi : Serpentine</div>
<div>Ciri khas : Kilap berminyak dan lebih keras dibanding kuku jari</div>
<div>7.Hornfels</div>
<div> <img alt="" src="https://future20.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/batuhornfels.png?w=604" /></div>
<div>Hornfels terbentuk ketika shale dan claystone mengalami
metamorfosis oleh temperatur dan intrusi beku, terbentuk di dekat dengan
sumber panas seperti dapur magma, dike, sil. Hornfels bersifat padat
tanpa foliasi.</div>
<div>Asal : Metamorfisme kontak shale dan claystone</div>
<div>Warna : Abu-abu, biru kehitaman, hitam</div>
<div>Ukuran butir : Fine grained</div>
<div>Struktur : Non foliasi</div>
<div>Komposisi : Kuarsa, mika</div>
<div>Derajat metamorfisme : Metamorfisme kontak</div>
<p>Ciri khas : Lebih keras dari pada glass, tekstur merata</p>
</div>
<p> </p>
<div>8. Sekismika</div>
<p><a href="http://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/18-sekismika.jpg"><img alt="" height="225" src="https://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/18-sekismika.jpg?w=300&h=225" title="18. SEKISMIKA" width="300" /></a></p>
<p>Sekismika dihasilkan oleh metamorfosa regional dengan tingkat lebih
tinggi dibandingkan phyllite, mempunyai foliasi dan kristalin. Ummnya
berbutir lebih kasar dari slate dan phyllite tetapi lebih halus dari
gneias. Foliasi tersebut terbentuk oleh kristal-kristal berbentuk
lempeng (play) dan kristal-kristal prismatik. Mineral-mineral berbentuk
lempengan tersebut antara lain : chlorite, sericite, muscovite, biotite,
dan tolc, sedangkan mineral-mineral prismatik adalah actinolite,
kyanite, hornblede, staurolite, dan silimanite. Kadang-kadang schist
hanya terdiri dari satu macam mineral saja, contohnya talc schist,
tetapi pada umumnya terdiri dari dua atau lebih mineral seperti calcite
– sericalcite – albite schist. Sekis sering mengandung mineral-mineral
yang bersifat antara lempengan dan pragmatik (flaky nor prismatic),
tetapi equigracular seperti misalnya : garnet dan feldspar, yang
biasanya bertekstur porphyroblastic. Batuan-batuan scihist dapat pula
berasal dari gabbro, basalt, ultrabasin, tuff, shale dan sandstone. Jika
beberapa “ teksture asli batuan asal” masih ada, akibat tekanan yang
kuat, maka batuan disebut, metabasalt, metagabbro dan sebagainya.</p>
<p>9. Filit</p>
<p><a href="http://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/20-filit.jpg"><img alt="" height="225" src="https://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/20-filit.jpg?w=300&h=225" title="20. FILIT" width="300" /></a></p>
<p>Filit berkaitan dengan perkembangan aktivitas metamorfik yaitu
baliknya temperatur atau bertambah besarnya rekristalisasi maka slate
berubah menjadi filit. Filit secara dominan tersusun dari
mineral-mineral kelompok mika seperti: mika, maricite, dan chlorite.
Batuan ini lebih kasar daripada slate, tetapi ada batas yang tegas
antara keduanya baik dalam hal ukuran butir maupun kandungan
mineralnya. Mineral-mineral seperti muscovit, mika, sericite, dan
cholite terdapat dalam jumlah yang besar. Mineral-mineral asesore dalam
jumlah yang sedikit antara lain megnetit, hematit, graphite, dan
tourmaline. Filit disebut pula sericite phllite, chlorite phyllite atau
sericite phyllite. Warna dari putih perak, merah sampai kehijau-hijauan.
Sifat dalam (tenacery) : brittle dan sering mempunyai pegangan halus
hingga agak kasar. Filit dihasilkan oleh metamorfose regional tingkat
rendah terutama dari mineral clay, shall, dan juga tuff dan tuffacous
sedimen.</p>
<p>10. Sabak</p>
<p><a href="http://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/21-batu-sabak.jpg"><img alt="" height="225" src="https://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/21-batu-sabak.jpg?w=300&h=225" title="21. BATU SABAK" width="300" /></a></p>
<p>Sabak merupakan batuan berbutir halus dan homogen, mempunyai
achistosity planar, tergantung pada pelapisannya. Oleh karena itu
biasanya mempunyai beberapa sudut untuk masing-masing perlapisan
sehingga batuan menjadi balah/rekah kedalam lapisan yang tipis. Sabak
merupakan salah satu istilah struktur dan tidak ada kaitannya dengan
komposisinya. Perlapisan asli dari slate masihg dapat terlihat, apabila
berasal dari abtuan beku basalt seperti struktur amigdoloidal. Sabak
berbutir sangat halus dan hanya dapat dideterminasi dengan mikroskop.
Hanya sedikit mineral sabak yang berbutir kasar seperti: kwarsa,
feldspar, cholorite, biotite, magnetite, hematite, kalsit, dan
ineral-mineral yang terdapat pada batuan shale. Warna yang ditimbulakan
dari warna merah, hijau, abu-abu, hingga hitam. Warna merah karena ada
mineral yang hemalit, hijau karena ada mineral cholorite. Warna abu-abu
karena adanya mineral-mineral dari karbon dan bahan-bahan organik
seperti grafit. Sabak yang berasal dari batu pasir “ graywacke” disebut “
graywacke slate”.</p>
<p>11. kuarsit</p>
<p><a href="http://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/22-kuarsit.jpg"><img alt="" height="225" src="https://randhyan626.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/22-kuarsit.jpg?w=300&h=225" title="22. KUARSIT" width="300" /></a></p>
<p>Kuarsit adalah metamorfose dari batuan pasir, jika strukturnya tak
mengalami perubahan dan masih menunjukan struktur aslinya. Kuarsit
terbentuk akibat panas yang tinggi sehingga menyebabkan rekristalisasi
kwarsa dan felsdpar. Akibat tekanan pada kwarsit dapat mengakibatkan
hancurnya kwarsit tersebut dan menghasilkan tekstur granoblastik.
Kuarsit sangat keras karena adanya sementasi sirikat (biasanya kwasa
kristalin) yang terendapkan disekitar butir-butir kuarsa yang lebih
besar, sehingga menghasilkan ikatan butir yang sangat kuat. Mineral lain
yang dijumpai dalam kuarsit adalah: apatite, zircon, epidote, dan
hornblede. Kuarsit dapat berbentuk akibat metamorfisme kontak atau
metamorfis regional dari pada panas dan tekanan terhadap batu pasir,
chert, vien kuarsit, dan kuarsit pigmatit. Sering berlapis-lapis dan
dapat mengandung fosil. Warna dari kuarsit bervariasi dari putih, coklat
hingga mendekati hitam. Adanya hematit memberikan warna merah muda
(pink) sedangkan chlori memberikan warna kehijau-hijauan.</p><h1 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name headline" style="color: black; font-family: Oswald; font-size: 32px; font-weight: 400; line-height: 44px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s;"> </h1></div><div class="post-meta" style="color: #bdbdbd; display: block; font-size: 13px; font-weight: 400; line-height: 21px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s;"><span class="post-author vcard" style="margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s;"><br /></span><span class="label-head" style="margin: 0px 0px 0px 5px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s;"></span><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 27.6px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batuan Beku</span></b></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-size: 16pt; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span> </span>: batuan yang terbentuk karena pembentukan magma dan lava yang membeku</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /></div></div><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 7.1pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -7.1pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">→</span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>magma adalah batuan cair dan sangat panas yang berada di dalam kerak bumi/perut bumi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 7.1pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -7.1pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">→</span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">lava adalah magma yang mencapai permukaan bumi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 7.1pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -7.1pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" /><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">1)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batu Apung</span></b></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); color: #444444; float: left; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 1em 0px 1px; orphans: 2; padding: 4px; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHdMLBoM9C6C3mnOE-fc-UF6l9jJER8iSNJe2-mekRQeBCQhyphenhyphenOEhnIDrcoCilE1aFMs43ndHrsJs2Og3AvM43VgP5aHfpVyGTuVozeXd9kqI93AcFcjgw0uBRa9-iSqPtwZD_-2_eQ2ozL/s1600/batu+apung.jpg" style="clear: left; color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto 1em; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="162" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHdMLBoM9C6C3mnOE-fc-UF6l9jJER8iSNJe2-mekRQeBCQhyphenhyphenOEhnIDrcoCilE1aFMs43ndHrsJs2Og3AvM43VgP5aHfpVyGTuVozeXd9kqI93AcFcjgw0uBRa9-iSqPtwZD_-2_eQ2ozL/s1600/batu+apung.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 10.4px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 14.95px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batu Apung</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: warna keabu-abuan, berpori-pori, bergelembung, ringan, terapung dalam air</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: dari pendinginan magma yang bergelembung-gelembung gas</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: untuk mengamplas atau menghaluskan kayu, di bidang industri digunakan sebagai bahan pengisi (filler), isolator temperatur tinggi dan lain-lain.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 21.3pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">2)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Obsidian</span></b></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); color: #444444; float: right; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 1px 0px 1em; orphans: 2; padding: 4px; text-align: right; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjf-4xbsjLprdy-iPAAOp1PLJeqb6jAK7SkEEJnwF1O82udbBz4ZC5KPOuSkR2r3RMFSqdvJ1OQIsPKSZRG2URFgSCRAX8sxuo5MmeDdn9L8XMwV7FmFvl8-XeVczY-X50LCIoiaWhAplg_/s1600/batu+obsidian.jpg" style="clear: left; color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto 1em; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjf-4xbsjLprdy-iPAAOp1PLJeqb6jAK7SkEEJnwF1O82udbBz4ZC5KPOuSkR2r3RMFSqdvJ1OQIsPKSZRG2URFgSCRAX8sxuo5MmeDdn9L8XMwV7FmFvl8-XeVczY-X50LCIoiaWhAplg_/s1600/batu+obsidian.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 10.4px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 14.95px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 14.95px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Obsidian</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: hitam, seperti kaca, tidak ada kristal-kristal</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: terbentuk dari lava permukaan yang mendingin dengan cepat</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: untuk alat pemotong atau ujung tombak (pada masa purbakala) dan bisa dijadikan kerajinan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 21.3pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">3)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Granit</span></b></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); color: #444444; float: left; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 1em 0px 1px; orphans: 2; padding: 4px; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTWsRxPXDc7NrGF7XBDruOKNNjdxydX15jhc6dbL9_oUZuEm9vhr_m7FYW0A2NGX9o27vSWY2y-wc5L5pFSFwmtuL9JuXe5MCGsRarrvJaDhioOwIkRaVJYgVDImObqf40vlofTccrtdXl/s1600/batu+granit.jpg" style="clear: left; color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto 1em; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="149" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTWsRxPXDc7NrGF7XBDruOKNNjdxydX15jhc6dbL9_oUZuEm9vhr_m7FYW0A2NGX9o27vSWY2y-wc5L5pFSFwmtuL9JuXe5MCGsRarrvJaDhioOwIkRaVJYgVDImObqf40vlofTccrtdXl/s1600/batu+granit.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 10.4px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 14.95px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Granit</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: terdiri atas kristal-kristal kasar, warna putih sampai abu-abu, kadang-kadang jingga, Batuan ini banyak di temukan di daerah pinggiran pantai dan di pinggiran sungai besar ataupun di dasar sungai.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: dari pendinginan magma yang terjadi dengan lambat di bawah permukaan bumi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: sbg bahan bangunan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 21.3pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">4)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Basalt</span></b></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); color: #444444; float: right; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px auto 0px 0px; orphans: 2; padding: 4px; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlI4Qj5MBJMBIkCaRwy6FPOuTvIMI8rexCMHmj8vicCz7TRydPBies-yafhE35swCNbzIHGA4jn_whXwI7rgf0K_1tcW0Pan2WUMCt5ucXNpvmMFc2Whra5TcKkcfWCVi-JVGagf4Bb3oQ/s1600/batu+basalt.jpg" style="clear: right; color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto 1em; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="149" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlI4Qj5MBJMBIkCaRwy6FPOuTvIMI8rexCMHmj8vicCz7TRydPBies-yafhE35swCNbzIHGA4jn_whXwI7rgf0K_1tcW0Pan2WUMCt5ucXNpvmMFc2Whra5TcKkcfWCVi-JVGagf4Bb3oQ/s1600/batu+basalt.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 10.4px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 14.95px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Basalt</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: terdiri atas kristal-kristal yang sangat kecil, berwarna hijau keabu-abuandan berlubang-lubang</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="color: #4f81bd; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span> </span>: dari pendinginan lava yanng mengandung gas tetapi gasnya telah menguap</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="color: #92d050; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan<span> </span></span></b>: sebagai bahan baku dalam industri poles, bahan bangunan / pondasi bangunan (gedung, jalan, jembatan, dll)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 21.3pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">5)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Diorit</span></b></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); color: #444444; float: left; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 1em 0px 1px; orphans: 2; padding: 4px; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxmc9dUolU-IYIjKQnimmetqvwkv1M2p7NjbTgjN6BtObD9YcSrHrIqs8a-qhJEaKXUZRTnHx20P-0ZP2wXz730BblZOOhp-2aClORTjycij4RPzlSBnz-A8SUJyIjOTRvABrNh6PZ7KHm/s1600/diorit.jpg" style="clear: left; color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto 1em; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="155" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxmc9dUolU-IYIjKQnimmetqvwkv1M2p7NjbTgjN6BtObD9YcSrHrIqs8a-qhJEaKXUZRTnHx20P-0ZP2wXz730BblZOOhp-2aClORTjycij4RPzlSBnz-A8SUJyIjOTRvABrNh6PZ7KHm/s1600/diorit.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 10.4px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Diorit</td></tr></tbody></table><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: Kelabu bercampur putih, atau hitam bercampur putih</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: dari hasil peleburan lantai samudra yang bersifat mafic pada suatu subduction zone, biasanya diproduksi pada busur lingkaran volkanis, dan membentuk suatu gunung didalam cordilleran ( subduction sepanjang tepi suatu benua, seperti pada deretan Pegunungan)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: sbg batu ornamen dinding maupun lantai bangunan gedung dan sbg bahan bangunan (hiasan)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">6)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Andesit</span></b></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); color: #444444; float: right; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 1px 0px 1em; orphans: 2; padding: 4px; text-align: right; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiODX2iYBMm7hTlG7XBISxSD-HjYMWIwqINmG4AznYl0ai5RbN_aEHEogJ_wwvaOy-jJyW4l_4KSoK40Dz-WSUgewBjpxt8HeHxaQJmXyMR1bxCerHJLFZRnzeyBd24lNDUc_0PS64W5iqB/s1600/andesit.jpg" style="clear: right; color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto 1em; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiODX2iYBMm7hTlG7XBISxSD-HjYMWIwqINmG4AznYl0ai5RbN_aEHEogJ_wwvaOy-jJyW4l_4KSoK40Dz-WSUgewBjpxt8HeHxaQJmXyMR1bxCerHJLFZRnzeyBd24lNDUc_0PS64W5iqB/s1600/andesit.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 10.4px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 14.95px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Andesit</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: batuan bertekstur halus, berwarna abu-abu hijau tetapi sering merah atau jingga</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: berasal dari lelehan lava gunung merapi yang meletus, terbentuk (membeku) ketika temperatur lava yang meleleh turun antara 900 sampai dengan 1,100 derajat Celsius.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: Nisan kuburan, Cobek, Arca untuk hiasan, Batu pembuat candi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">7)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Gabro </span></b></div><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px auto; orphans: 2; padding: 4px; text-align: center; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9kRGamhodOrUp7RcR26MxmsaXroHibCEUuzX9DoS56qy9dqwVsvCB8yq2HdIBBXjl63qDqUr-mTYGJ5jmSSM6wn5CGnl6LE-nXYbpBNX5IcMC7n6qBb6bR4a6JwmnqJS2NuFBWoJ_QgiW/s1600/Batu+Gabro.PNG" style="color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="122" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9kRGamhodOrUp7RcR26MxmsaXroHibCEUuzX9DoS56qy9dqwVsvCB8yq2HdIBBXjl63qDqUr-mTYGJ5jmSSM6wn5CGnl6LE-nXYbpBNX5IcMC7n6qBb6bR4a6JwmnqJS2NuFBWoJ_QgiW/s1600/Batu+Gabro.PNG" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 10.4px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></span></span></b><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 14.95px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Gabro</span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></b></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: Berwarna hitam, hijau, dan abu-abu gelap. Struktur batuan ini adalah massive, tidak terdapat rongga atau lubang udara maupun retakan-retakan. Batuan ini memeiliki tekstur fanerik karena mineral-mineralnya dapat dilihat langsung secara kasat mata dan mineral yang besar menunjukkan bahwa mineral tersebut terbentuk pada suhu pembekuan yang relatif lambat sehingga bentuk mineralnya besar-besar</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: terbentuk dari magma yang membeku di dalam gunung</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: untuk penghasil pelapis dinding ( sebagai marmer dinding )</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">8)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Liparit</span></b></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); color: #444444; float: right; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 1px 0px 1em; orphans: 2; padding: 4px; text-align: right; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGvm0qEwYdQFFBk-TRHAF7losi8LKu2X1ZUbHhEWEat7WKthu8QOjHDhvAq2CmaAIjKAeCAHZY9b0XSwiJA8X5gJJCiuD1jhXkFqhpe7aNngcjc7ambdpZnH0Tud4NCXAZQBU29iZzra2P/s1600/batu+Liparit.jpg" style="clear: right; color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto 1em; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="151" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGvm0qEwYdQFFBk-TRHAF7losi8LKu2X1ZUbHhEWEat7WKthu8QOjHDhvAq2CmaAIjKAeCAHZY9b0XSwiJA8X5gJJCiuD1jhXkFqhpe7aNngcjc7ambdpZnH0Tud4NCXAZQBU29iZzra2P/s1600/batu+Liparit.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 10.4px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Liparit</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: bertekstur porfiris dan umumnya berwarna putih, mineral pembentuknya feldspar, kuarsa, biotit dan mungkin juga mineral berwarna gelap.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><div style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></span></div><div style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></span></div><div style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></span></div><div style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~</span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.0001pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="font-size: x-large; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batu Sedimen atau Endapan</span><span> </span></span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">: batuan yang terbentuk karena pengendapan / hasil pelapukan dan pengikisan batuan yang dihanyutkan oleh air atau terbawa oleh tiupan angin. Kemudian endapan ini menjadi keras karena tekanan atau ada zat-zat yang merekat pd bagian-bagian endapan tersebut.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.0001pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">1)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Konglomerat</span></b></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); color: #444444; float: right; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 1px 0px 1em; orphans: 2; padding: 4px; text-align: right; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQb4iC1-q3hb_jQGz7ihMQ93S0Tf-yofwcQkWZ2ue48fbPWx3vkl3P6ss4Ea3ez80N3yR-36sTmyM-GUePmH7pyJY1fJrPBgXtcNhMgo_g16y6u6y4W-xrPnUu7jVDOKzy5sJljOV2qtAn/s1600/batu+konglomerat.jpg" style="clear: right; color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto 1em; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQb4iC1-q3hb_jQGz7ihMQ93S0Tf-yofwcQkWZ2ue48fbPWx3vkl3P6ss4Ea3ez80N3yR-36sTmyM-GUePmH7pyJY1fJrPBgXtcNhMgo_g16y6u6y4W-xrPnUu7jVDOKzy5sJljOV2qtAn/s1600/batu+konglomerat.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 10.4px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 14.95px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Konglomerat</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: material kerikil-kerikil bulat, batu-batu dan pasir yang merekat satu sama lainnya</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: dari bahan-bahan yang lepas karena gaya beratnya menjadi terpadatkan dan terikat</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: untuk bahan bangunan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">2)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batu Pasir</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); float: right; margin: 0px 1px 0px 1em; padding: 4px; text-align: right;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIFZziWXAlCJZumcPvk6PRimrQdvL8dVj9hct-sCuRXblZW52jiFX8XDmSb4V0YlG_wdSgh5vPRRKsBVRu13XrY8rv8xj2nqnrM7SlivBVCt0T6LK__67FFxqyR74Uz6J7YxzeQJVE92jn/s1600/batu+pasir.jpg" style="color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIFZziWXAlCJZumcPvk6PRimrQdvL8dVj9hct-sCuRXblZW52jiFX8XDmSb4V0YlG_wdSgh5vPRRKsBVRu13XrY8rv8xj2nqnrM7SlivBVCt0T6LK__67FFxqyR74Uz6J7YxzeQJVE92jn/s1600/batu+pasir.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 17.0667px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batu Pasir</span></td></tr></tbody></table></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: tersusun dari butiran-butiran pasir, warna abu-abu, kuning, merah</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: dari bahan-bahan yang lepas karena gaya beratnya menjadi terpadatkan dan terikat</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: sebagai material di dalam pembuatan gelas/kaca dan sbg kontruksi bangunan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">3)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batu Serpih</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); float: left; margin: 0px 1em 0px 1px; padding: 4px; text-align: left;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlVhERVbLGRPQ8b8skWyToqZDVfPcu_oe5X2EybWJ3hIrxbQ1VEo6XEtG5oEEV8iXefq9JMv-J1ZKveKqCb330yxXciE_hYi4okhTJf11PH-J_MSAX_GfyUCvw6xZR4JUobHCOptt0qe4W/s1600/batu+serpih.jpg" style="color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlVhERVbLGRPQ8b8skWyToqZDVfPcu_oe5X2EybWJ3hIrxbQ1VEo6XEtG5oEEV8iXefq9JMv-J1ZKveKqCb330yxXciE_hYi4okhTJf11PH-J_MSAX_GfyUCvw6xZR4JUobHCOptt0qe4W/s1600/batu+serpih.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 17.0667px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batu Serpih</span></td></tr></tbody></table></span> </span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: lunak, baunya seperti tanah liat, butir-butir batuan halus, warna hijau, hitam, kuning, merah, abu-abu</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: dari bahan-bahan yang lepas dan halus karena gaya beratnya menjadi terpadatkan dan terikat</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: sbg bahan bangunan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">4)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batu Gamping (kapur)</span></b></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); color: #444444; float: left; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 1em 0px 1px; orphans: 2; padding: 4px; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh52jKqEG228vG1PTscIpCHnHXlZElThlb9lkgpaLSS9RWWvFJVkGbt4grZH2w2aYlO8yFnaqgDEZSxqtLNhdvHAgiak_BZfRR9r3WYGLMzkW1PPixSTmkvUBlPUA6VBUePRZEUKQIXfRVY/s1600/batu+gamping.jpg" style="clear: left; color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto 1em; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh52jKqEG228vG1PTscIpCHnHXlZElThlb9lkgpaLSS9RWWvFJVkGbt4grZH2w2aYlO8yFnaqgDEZSxqtLNhdvHAgiak_BZfRR9r3WYGLMzkW1PPixSTmkvUBlPUA6VBUePRZEUKQIXfRVY/s1600/batu+gamping.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 10.4px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 14.95px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batu Gamping (kapur)</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: agak lunak, warna putih keabu-abuan, membentuk gas karbon dioksida kalau ditetesi asam</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: dari cangkang binatang lunak seperti siput, kerang, dan binatang laut yang telah mati. Rangkanya yang terbuat dari kapu tidak akan musnah, tapi memadat dan membentuk batu kapur</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan<span> </span></span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">: sbg bahan baku semen</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">5)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Breksi</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); float: right; margin: 0px 1px 0px 1em; padding: 4px; text-align: right;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTGFq3wY2aCuRAxRPyPcONefeFqc4xYqtbxrua4FEo7xJYZYQCKWWhiGsehXxPhabUhWo4yaPWz1G87SPiyKBSlA1Nl8pz2_z6b6u7THDCPVC9urQ2zTN1tcVOYaQAQ2cVAg_d4vcEL3rs/s1600/Breksi.jpg" style="color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTGFq3wY2aCuRAxRPyPcONefeFqc4xYqtbxrua4FEo7xJYZYQCKWWhiGsehXxPhabUhWo4yaPWz1G87SPiyKBSlA1Nl8pz2_z6b6u7THDCPVC9urQ2zTN1tcVOYaQAQ2cVAg_d4vcEL3rs/s1600/Breksi.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 17.0667px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Breksi</span></td></tr></tbody></table></span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: gabungan pecahan-pecahan yang berasal dari letusan gunung berapi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: terbentuk katena bahan-bahan iini terlempar tinggi ke udara dan mengendap di suatu tempat</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: dijadikan sbg kerajinan dan sbg bahan bangunan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">6)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Stalaktit dan Stalagmit</span></b></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); color: #444444; float: right; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 1px 0px 1em; orphans: 2; padding: 4px; text-align: right; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdqJQ34jFgSpRb2JHSF6hlXe6aG5pK1J45hst4EcUJpqspz3fZl17Jx3Rap-RHIkG-XEudeor64rWBcHXSujZf7xTAbVXp8MLUGnJi87F6oJtbbJ8ModQuA5xWW-4vqIEqAQE_1Z_bOnw1/s1600/stalagmit-dan-stalaktit.jpg" style="clear: left; color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto 1em; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdqJQ34jFgSpRb2JHSF6hlXe6aG5pK1J45hst4EcUJpqspz3fZl17Jx3Rap-RHIkG-XEudeor64rWBcHXSujZf7xTAbVXp8MLUGnJi87F6oJtbbJ8ModQuA5xWW-4vqIEqAQE_1Z_bOnw1/s1600/stalagmit-dan-stalaktit.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="150" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 10.4px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 14.95px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Stalaktit dan Stalagmit</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: kuning, coklat, krem, keemasan, putih</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: Air yang larut di daerah karst akan masuk ke lobang-lobang (doline) kemudian turun ke gua dan menetes-netes dari atap gua ke dasar gua. Tetesan-tetesan air yang mengandung kapur yg lama kelamaan kapurnya membeku dan menumpuk sedikit demi sedikit lalu berubah jadi batuan kapur yang bentuknya runcing-runcing.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: sebagai keindahan alam (biasanya di gua-gua), dapat di jadikan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">7)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batu Lempung</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); float: left; margin: 0px 1em 0px 1px; padding: 4px; text-align: left;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiisPVTH5loeB1rdTBWOLozHxdbhQtK3h4jQjaYwO5uHEMyP4u1Ds2h5sW72BnFRgbQYMAh1o6k87uEkZ1Du1zUQyfajhYUOS20VLvB2m0XsLNqn3kxATwj9UL0dr9FgGjg1alxMTECnihE/s1600/batu+Lempung.jpg" style="color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiisPVTH5loeB1rdTBWOLozHxdbhQtK3h4jQjaYwO5uHEMyP4u1Ds2h5sW72BnFRgbQYMAh1o6k87uEkZ1Du1zUQyfajhYUOS20VLvB2m0XsLNqn3kxATwj9UL0dr9FgGjg1alxMTECnihE/s1600/batu+Lempung.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 17.0667px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batu Lempung</span></td></tr></tbody></table></span> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: Coklat, keemasan, coklat, merah, abu-abu</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: lempung residu adalah sejenis lempung yang terbentuk karena proses pelapukan (alterasi) batuan beku dan ditemukan disekitar batuan induknya. Kemudian material lempung ini mengalami proses diagenesa sehingga membentuk batu lempung.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: dijadikan sbg kerajinan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></span></span></span><div style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></span></span></span></div><div style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~</span></span></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.0001pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="font-size: x-large; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batuan Metamorf atau Batuan Malihan</span><span> </span></span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">: batuan yang berasal dari batuan sedimen dan batuan beku yang mengalami perubahan karena panas dan tekanan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.0001pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">1)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batuan Pualam atau Batu Marmer (dari batu gamping/kapur)</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); float: right; margin: 0px 1px 0px 1em; padding: 4px; text-align: right;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgCvqQj14Byu3te-b_rRvzqiF6RGCYGpwWjWVDsRLaZGy4WrcpbTsWM_ouqdfBFQCiscwbra3fBffrg4EKZKWaWwTBCV5AbKiHKSz3IhIpH-q3EiOA7KZNakOtXN6uqUMLPKeT0LRYoYWA-/s1600/batu+marmer.jpg" style="color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgCvqQj14Byu3te-b_rRvzqiF6RGCYGpwWjWVDsRLaZGy4WrcpbTsWM_ouqdfBFQCiscwbra3fBffrg4EKZKWaWwTBCV5AbKiHKSz3IhIpH-q3EiOA7KZNakOtXN6uqUMLPKeT0LRYoYWA-/s1600/batu+marmer.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 17.0667px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 14.95px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batuan Pualam</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: campuran warna berbeda-beda, mempunyai pita-pita warna, kristal-kristalnya sedang sampai kasar, bila ditetesi asam akan mengeluarkan bunyi mendesah, keras dan mengkilap jika dipoles</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: terbemtuk bila batu kapur mengalami perubahan suhu dan tekanan tinggi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: untuk membuat patung dan lantai/ubin</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">2)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batuan Sabak</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); float: left; margin: 0px 1em 0px 1px; padding: 4px; text-align: left;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgK7TVFb4UWRuv9KV057mU6QbzcmgGC_lltTMD7OkPRL7AiExn_px8ZvTt4JR00_HJhSIo7vMrGrpENt70fdEE2Vxg3EacUmA0LhjbyiHSedauxXX5PF52-QJuswPx_wAqgSDKWA29_Hkki/s1600/batu+sabak.jpg" style="color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgK7TVFb4UWRuv9KV057mU6QbzcmgGC_lltTMD7OkPRL7AiExn_px8ZvTt4JR00_HJhSIo7vMrGrpENt70fdEE2Vxg3EacUmA0LhjbyiHSedauxXX5PF52-QJuswPx_wAqgSDKWA29_Hkki/s1600/batu+sabak.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 17.0667px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batu Sabak</span></td></tr></tbody></table></span> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: abu-abu kehijau-hijauan dan hitam, dapat dibelah-belah menjadi lempeng-lempeng tipis</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: terbentuk bila batu serpih kena suhu dan tekanan tinggi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: dijadikan sbg kerajinan, sbg batu tulis, sbg bahan bangunan, dan untuk membuat atap rumah (semacam genting)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">3)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> Gneiss (ganes)</span></b></div><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); color: #444444; float: right; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px 1px 0px 1em; orphans: 2; padding: 4px; text-align: right; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2gwiay1C16SS86g63s3Tch6d0QPaHI_IifKf_PuC6CTlCOHsrLUGB93K4ia2bdKLl-FhpS18J7SOuYwOJHi-NldqsMZCTWfOyXc5exzC02CDJS4xHQGF0CRA5pl2sraoCUdCh0SaMJt-l/s1600/batu+gneiss.jpg" style="color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2gwiay1C16SS86g63s3Tch6d0QPaHI_IifKf_PuC6CTlCOHsrLUGB93K4ia2bdKLl-FhpS18J7SOuYwOJHi-NldqsMZCTWfOyXc5exzC02CDJS4xHQGF0CRA5pl2sraoCUdCh0SaMJt-l/s1600/batu+gneiss.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 10.4px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 14.95px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batu Gneiss (ganes)</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>:<span> </span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">berwarna putih kebau-abuan,<span> </span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">terdapat<span> </span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">goresan-goresan yang tersusun dari minera-mineral, mempunyai bentuk bentuk penjajaran yang tipis dan terlipat pada lapisan-lapisan, dan terbentuk urat-urat yang tebal yang terdiri dari butiran-butiran mineral di dalam batuan tersebut</span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>:<span> </span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">terbentuk pada saat batuan sedimen atau batuan beku yang terpendam pada tempat yang dalam mengalami tekanan dan temperatur yang tinggi.</span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: dijadikan sbg kerajinan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">4)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Sekis</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); float: left; margin: 0px 1em 0px 1px; padding: 4px; text-align: left;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5b4xLFOZC8qY1b3VQzseV8A-ONQftc5dhr3Ar3A7zKQFgv6cNLdrPC7iGynvUdY5axvmh91hfSKQ1qZC38FnOqoptAytlySvtLPgUGz2fAA9s2I0bgDYGxiJnnaias7D5cEyxGfintUsr/s1600/batu+sekis.jpg" style="color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="170" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5b4xLFOZC8qY1b3VQzseV8A-ONQftc5dhr3Ar3A7zKQFgv6cNLdrPC7iGynvUdY5axvmh91hfSKQ1qZC38FnOqoptAytlySvtLPgUGz2fAA9s2I0bgDYGxiJnnaias7D5cEyxGfintUsr/s1600/batu+sekis.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></span></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 17.0667px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Batu Sekis</span></td></tr></tbody></table></span> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>:<span> </span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">berwarna hitam, hijau dan ungu,<span> </span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: black; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">mineral pada batuan ini umumnya terpisah menjadi berkas-berkas bergelombang yang diperlihatkan dengan kristal yang mengkilap</span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>dan terkadang ditemukan kristal garnet</span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>:<span> </span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: black; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">batuan metamorf regional yang terbentuk pada derajat metamorfosa tingkat menengah.</span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>:<span> </span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: black; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">sebagai sumber mika yang utama (satu komponen penting dalam pembuatan kondensator dan kapasitor dalam industri elektronika)</span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">5)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kuarsit</span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); float: left; margin: 0px 1em 0px 1px; padding: 4px; text-align: left;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3B6mrkzAL4hdsabIqCfipRgnoToSXeL-0t7Aabn50iXS7LLVgqiY_9t8-3pRRpTm800fT4Y-DFkIyS417eXEWTOuCI0f1mrth0iYl6VNMZ6Wslx-w4dHhlx8iXtD-_BpgHQ-16dYYzNkM/s1600/batu+kuarsit.jpg" style="color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3B6mrkzAL4hdsabIqCfipRgnoToSXeL-0t7Aabn50iXS7LLVgqiY_9t8-3pRRpTm800fT4Y-DFkIyS417eXEWTOuCI0f1mrth0iYl6VNMZ6Wslx-w4dHhlx8iXtD-_BpgHQ-16dYYzNkM/s1600/batu+kuarsit.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 17.0667px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 14.95px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kuarsit</span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></span></b></td></tr></tbody></table></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: berwarna<span> </span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Abu-abu, kekuningan, cokelat, merah,<span> </span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">sering berlapis-lapis dan dapat mengandung fosil,</span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>lebih keras dibanding gelas dan terdapat butiran sedang</span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>:<span> </span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">metamorfose dari batuan pasir, jika strukturnya tak mengalami perubahan dan masih menunjukan struktur aslinya. Kuarsit terbentuk akibat panas yang tinggi sehingga menyebabkan rekristalisasi kwarsa dan felsdpar.</span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: dijadikan sbg kerajinan,<span> </span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">konstruksi jalan dan perbaikan</span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">6)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Milonit</span></b></div><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px auto; orphans: 2; padding: 4px; text-align: center; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjgzio9jygrne0tetpqZgruTm5Tm_HpA7nXrUkmfSOs_w8wsiLso1UNfo28yFszxZzRLI3fyMhJu8e86UUtAndeGK_ESNKvkVmEMTKTsZ7QDCVaEfeZ4KGAVJttZZCpEn3Tvzr_aRJkwkCC/s1600/batu+Milonit.jpg" style="color: #3580ce; margin: 0px auto; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="98" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjgzio9jygrne0tetpqZgruTm5Tm_HpA7nXrUkmfSOs_w8wsiLso1UNfo28yFszxZzRLI3fyMhJu8e86UUtAndeGK_ESNKvkVmEMTKTsZ7QDCVaEfeZ4KGAVJttZZCpEn3Tvzr_aRJkwkCC/s1600/batu+Milonit.jpg" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1px solid rgb(214, 233, 252); margin: 0px; max-width: 99%; padding: 4px;" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td class="tr-caption" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 10.4px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="line-height: 14.95px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Milonit</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.2pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></span></b><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #f79646; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ciri</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>:</span><span class="apple-style-span" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span>butir-butir batuan ini lebih halus dan dapat dibelah, dan abu-abu, kehitaman, coklat, biru</span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cara terbentuk</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>:<span> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Terbentuk oleh rekristalisasi dinamis mineral-mineral pokok yang mengakibatkan pengurangan ukuran butir-butir batuan</span></span><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span> </span></span></span></span><b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="color: #92d050; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kegunaan</span></b><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span> </span>: dijadikan sbg kerajinan.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 1cm; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: -14.15pt; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span face=""Agency FB", sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24.5333px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span></div><br />Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-75383472967212878852020-12-31T00:04:00.001-08:002020-12-31T00:10:20.997-08:00Batuan dalam Sains Al Qur'an<span class="fullpost">
</span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQJFgmbFuaRlA183-Vo-1CnIeH2-48OfcVlxsvarCicUbpJcUB18sWyIPbNiH9Xl3VT5qAOu1lnSxKMKMJ6_xKqBk2ogNj6Aro2VGegS_2LDZedPbGkl29pRzkxKbDL4kUsOlC7nlXRtjm/s1350/FB_IMG_1608552844469.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1350" data-original-width="1080" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQJFgmbFuaRlA183-Vo-1CnIeH2-48OfcVlxsvarCicUbpJcUB18sWyIPbNiH9Xl3VT5qAOu1lnSxKMKMJ6_xKqBk2ogNj6Aro2VGegS_2LDZedPbGkl29pRzkxKbDL4kUsOlC7nlXRtjm/s320/FB_IMG_1608552844469.jpg" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Sedimen merupakan kumpulan material hasil pelapukan batuan lain yang ter-transport dari tempat asalnya, lalu mengendap dan mengalami kompaksi serta litifikasi atau proses pembatuan membentuk batuan sedimen.</div><span><a name='more'></a></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Batuan sedimen dapat dibedakan berdasarkan berbagai hal, antara lain; dari ukuran butir; komponen penyusun; perbandingan komponen penyusun; kandungan fosil; bahkan dari warnanya.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Ada yang tersusun oleh mineral kuarsa, ada yang ukuran butirnya lempung, ada batuan sedimen yang terbentuk dari evaporasi atau penguapan air laut, bahkan ada juga batuan sedimen yang berisi fosil seperti fosil foraminifera, fosil dinosaurus, dan berbagai fosil yang sangat banyak variasinya.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJYK6loejwYClxvqX3zOyroRTxn7QwGPuveyfnfaLxCoVD_ssnTdS5zW0ea1k1D851-or29ulpj3NJjMgvLakg4aVsXzyN-uNYvczEhyphenhyphenh7r5XHs8W3Fqs4_t6zezcZf3_rAZoibz1IcFcb/s1350/FB_IMG_1608794961941.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1350" data-original-width="1080" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJYK6loejwYClxvqX3zOyroRTxn7QwGPuveyfnfaLxCoVD_ssnTdS5zW0ea1k1D851-or29ulpj3NJjMgvLakg4aVsXzyN-uNYvczEhyphenhyphenh7r5XHs8W3Fqs4_t6zezcZf3_rAZoibz1IcFcb/s320/FB_IMG_1608794961941.jpg" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Penampilan batuan sedimen yang paling sederhana dan indah untuk diamati adalah dari warna batuan, dari warna pula kita bisa memperkirakan komposisi penyusun batuan sedimen. Seperti yang kita tahu batubara berwarna hitam tersusun dari tumbuhan yang telah mati. Lalu, batuan sedimen apa yang berwarna putih, merah, abu-abu, bahkan hijau?</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjAkEw6MbB8t69CwKyDu4W0ieASSKhMNiwq-4ARew4lNWz-1zRoGRZIZnxvGT2nqowwYXvAnBgdgLdCZkfBn7ZUk1aK6OF8ZafIRzkX8MRua3N21-4rhORlSxpo3HKB30jE5ckniDKeSkPi/s1328/FB_IMG_1609055831864.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1328" data-original-width="1080" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjAkEw6MbB8t69CwKyDu4W0ieASSKhMNiwq-4ARew4lNWz-1zRoGRZIZnxvGT2nqowwYXvAnBgdgLdCZkfBn7ZUk1aK6OF8ZafIRzkX8MRua3N21-4rhORlSxpo3HKB30jE5ckniDKeSkPi/s320/FB_IMG_1609055831864.jpg" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Warna putih bisa saja berisi mineral kuarsa atau karbonat, warna abu-abu biasanya dari produk vulkanisme, yang warna merah disebabkan kandungan mineral besi dan mangan yang mengalami oksidasi, sedangkan warna hijau disebabkan oleh mineral glaukonit. Dari warnanya juga kita bisa memperkirakan komposisi batuan sedimen, namun tentu harus diamati lebih detil dalam skala mikroskopis.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Apakah teman-teman menyadari bahwa dalam Alquran surah Fatir ayat 27 bercerita tentang batuan sedimen:</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Allah Subhanahu Wa Ta'ala berfirman:</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">اَلَمْ تَرَ اَنَّ اللّٰهَ اَنْزَلَ مِنَ السَّمَآءِ مَآءً ۚ فَاَ خْرَجْنَا بِهٖ ثَمَرٰتٍ مُّخْتَلِفًا اَلْوَا نُهَا ۗ وَمِنَ الْجِبَا لِ جُدَدٌ بِۢيْضٌ وَّحُمْرٌ مُّخْتَلِفٌ اَلْوَا نُهَا وَغَرَا بِيْبُ سُوْدٌ</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">"Tidakkah engkau melihat bahwa Allah menurunkan air dari langit lalu dengan air itu Kami hasilkan buah-buahan yang beraneka macam jenisnya. Dan di antara gunung-gunung itu ada garis-garis putih dan merah yang beraneka macam warnanya dan ada (pula) yang hitam pekat."</div><div style="text-align: justify;">(QS. Fatir 35: Ayat 27)</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">* Via Al-Qur'an Indonesia http://quran-id.com</div><div style="text-align: justify;">QS Fatir (35:27)</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Secara tidak langsung ayat tersebut bercerita tentang konsep sedimentologi dan stratigrafi pada ilmu geologi. Garis-garis pada gunung merupakan pelapisan batuan sedimen yang terbentuk saat pengendapan sedimen, sedangkan aneka warna yang berbeda mencerminkan komposisi penyusun batuan yang bervariasi.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Bagi seorang geologis, apalagi sedimentologis, batuan sedimen menjadi proxy atau alat untuk dapat digunakan sebagai perekam informasi kejadian di masa lampau, apakah hal itu kondisi lingkungan, kondisi iklim, hingga kejadian katastrofi yang terjadi pada masa lampau. Dari batuan sedimen, diharapkan kita dapat belajar memahami tentang penciptaan bumi dan semesta, mengambil manfaat darinya, serta tetap menjaga kelestariannya.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-57699823250033317892020-12-29T03:55:00.003-08:002020-12-29T04:34:47.960-08:00Hujan dalam Sains Al Qur'an
<p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhx-XhrAck-koRmgC0mCoBU98bYW1rUacjVHduG6tznVrYVLk9-b4HU5U8f0BEqnk2dlLI7_acjvg1cXe80cPnptpkg83KvehgyQTeVnOTwncYyDkquhrfIIE6PWJI723LYKpxzlasYYHnP/s2048/IMG_20201209_065103.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1152" data-original-width="2048" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhx-XhrAck-koRmgC0mCoBU98bYW1rUacjVHduG6tznVrYVLk9-b4HU5U8f0BEqnk2dlLI7_acjvg1cXe80cPnptpkg83KvehgyQTeVnOTwncYyDkquhrfIIE6PWJI723LYKpxzlasYYHnP/s320/IMG_20201209_065103.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br />Al-Quran mengungkap banyak fakta dalam kehidupan, termasuk fakta tentang
turunnya air hujan. Dalam Al-Quran, Allah SWT menyebut<a href="https://republika.co.id/tag/hujan"> hujan </a>yang turun ke bumi sebagai
rahmat yang diperlukan seluruh makhluk. <span><a name='more'></a></span><p></p>
<p>
"Dan Dialah Yang menurunkan hujan sesudah mereka berputus asa dan
menyebarkan rahmat-Nya. Dan Dialah Yang Maha Pelindung lagi Maha Terpuji."
(QS Asy-Syuura: 28).</p>
<p>Di musim kemarau, orang akan sangat berharap turunnya hujan. Menurut
petunjuk Al-Quran, salah satu penyebab turun hujan adalah iman dan takwa. </p>
<p>Sebagaimana dinyatakan dalam Alquran surah al-A'raf ayat ke-96, yang
berbunyi: "Dan sekiranya penduduk negeri beriman dan bertakwa, pasti Kami
akan melimpahkan kepada mereka berkah dari langit dan bumi, tetapi ternyata
mereka mendustakan (ayat-ayat Kami), maka Kami siksa mereka sesuai dengan apa
yang telah mereka kerjakan."</p>
<p>Para ahli tafsir, seperti Imam ath-Thabari, menafsirkan bahwa yang dimaksud
dengan keberkahan dari langit adalah hujan. Sementara keberkahan dari bumi
adalah bermunculannya tumbuh-tumbuhan. Akan tetapi, tumbuhan pun tidak akan
muncul tanpa air.</p>
<p>Karena itu, manusia seyogianya meyakini bahwa Allah berkuasa untuk
menurunkan hujan. Sebab, mudah bagi Allah SWT untuk menurunkan hujan dengan
cara menggiring awan, mengumpulkannya dan menjadikannya hujan.</p>
<p>Sebagaimana ditegaskan Allah dalam firman-Nya dalam surah Al-A'raf ayat 57.
"Dialah yang meniupkan angin sebagai pembawa kabar gembira, mendahului
kedatangan rahmat-Nya (hujan), sehingga apabila angin itu membawa awan mendung,
Kami halau ke suatu daerah yang tandus, lalu Kami turunkan hujan di daerah itu.
Kemudian Kami tumbuhkan dengan hujan itu berbagai macam buah-buahan."</p>
<p>Apa yang diungkap dalam Alquran tentang hujan juga sejalan dengan ilmu
pengetahuan. Dalam Alquran disebutkan, Allah SWT menurunkan air hujan dalam
ukuran atau kadar tertentu.</p>
<p>Sebagaimana ayat ke-11 surah az-Zukhruf yang berbunyi, "Dan yang
menurunkan air dari langit menurut kadar (yang diperlukan), lalu Kami hidupkan
dengan air itu negeri yang mati."</p>
<p>Mengutip Abdul Syukur al-Azizi dalam bukunya berjudul "Islam Itu
Ilmiah" menuturkan, bahwa kata 'kadar' yang disebutkan dalam ayat tersebut
merujuk pada salah satu karakteristik hujan. </p>
<p>Secara umum, jumlah hujan yang turun ke bumi selalu sama. Diperkirakan
sebanyak 16 ton air di bumi menguap setiap detiknya. Jumlah tersebut sama
dengan jumlah air yang turun ke bumi setiap detiknya. Dengan demikian,
dikatakan bahwa hujan secara terus-menerus beredar dalam sebuah siklus seimbang
menurut 'ukuran' tertentu. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Hujan yang turun juga diatur sesuai kadarnya. Dari
ketinggian berapa pun hujan turun, kecepatan rata-ratanya hanya sekitar 8-10
km/jam ketika mencapai tanah. Hal ini disebabkan bentuk tetesan hujan yang
sangat istimewa. Sehingga, air hujan yang turun tidak sampai merusak benda yang
ditimpanya. </p>
<p>Selain itu, turunnya air hujan juga memiliki fakta yang menarik lainnya. Pada
lapisan atmosteris tempat terjadinya hujan, temperatur bisa saja turun hingga
400 derajat Celcius di bawah nol. </p>
<p>Akan tetapi, dalam kondisi demikian tetesan hujan tidak berubah menjadi
partikel es. Sebab, air yang terkandung dalam atmosfer merupakan air murni.
Sedangkan air murni hampir tidak membeku pada temperatur yang sangat rendah
sekalipun. </p>
<p>Dengan demikian, air hujan diturunkan sesuai kadarnya agar memberikan
manfaat bagi makhluk-Nya. Dengan hujan, tumbuhan atau tanaman menjadi subur dan
menghasilkan buah yang bermanfaat bagi manusia.</p>
<p>"Dia-lah yang telah menurunkan air hujan dari langit untuk kamu,
sebagiannya menjadi minuman dan sebagiannya (menyuburkan) tumbuh-tumbuhan, yang
pada (tempat tumbuhnya) kamu menggembalakan ternakmu." (QS an-Nahl:10).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"> </p><p>Daur air bisa diuraikan secara sederhana, yakni uap air di udara, apabila
jumlahnya sudah cukup banyak, akan terkumpul menjadi awan. Begitu uap air di
dalam awan sudah mencapai titik jenuh, ia akan berkondensasi menjadi air yang
kemudian jatuh ke Bumi sebagai hujan. </p>
<p>Di daerah dengan suhu udara lebih rendah dibanding titik beku air,
kondensasi air akan membentuk fase padat yang dijatuhkan dalam bentuk salju
atau es. Melalui pemanasan, salju akan mencair. </p>
<p>Air lelehan salju, sebagaimana air hujan, akan mengaliri dan menggenangi
bagian-bagian terendah permukaan Bumi dalam bentuk sungai, danau, atau rawa di
daratan dan akhirnya akan mengalir ke laut. </p>
<p>Sebagian aliran air ini akan meresap ke dalam Bumi, mengalir dan tersimpan
di dalam tanah dan batuan dalam bentuk air tanah dalam dan air tanah dangkal.
Dengan adanya panas matahari, sebagian air yang mengalir dan menggenangi
daratan dan lautan akan menguap ke udara dan bergerak bersama pergerakan angin.
</p>
<p>Dalam kitab suci Alquran, Allah Subhanahu wa ta'ala menjelaskan tentang
turunnya hujan melalui Surah Ar-Rum Ayat 48: </p>
<p>"Allah, Dialah yang mengirim angin, lalu angin itu menggerakkan awan
dan Allah membentangkannya di langit menurut yang dikehendaki-Nya, dan
menjadikannya bergumpal-gumpal; lalu kamu lihat hujan keluar dari
celah-celahnya, maka apabila hujan itu turun mengenai hamba-hamba-Nya yang
dikehendaki-Nya, tiba-tiba mereka menjadi gembira." (QS Ar-Rum: 48) </p>
<p>Hujan adalah rahmat. Bagaimana hujan terbentuk masih merupakan misteri besar
bagi orang-orang dalam waktu yang lama. Baru setelah ilmu pengetahuan berkembang
dan radar cuaca ditemukan, kebenaran Firman Allah dalam Al Qur’an tentang
tahap-tahap pembentukan hujan bisa dijelaskan secara ilmiah dari sudut pandang
sains. Pembentukan hujan berlangsung dalam tiga tahap, yaitu pertama, “bahan
baku” hujan naik ke udara oleh angin, lalu awan terbentuk dam akhirnya curahan
hujan terlihat.</p>
<p>Sebelum sains bisa menjelaskan fenomena terjadinya hujan, Al Qur’an 14 abad
yang lalu sudah memberikan gambaran.</p>
<p><em>“Dialah Allah Yang mengirimkan angin yang menggerakkan awan; lalu Ia
membentangkannya di langit sesuai dengan kehendak-Nya, dan menjadikannya
bergumpal-gumpal, lalu kau lihat air hujan keluar dari celah-celahnya; maka
bila Ia menurunkannya kepada siapa saja dari hamba-hamba-Nya yang Ia kehendaki,
mereka pun bergembira ria”</em><span class="has-inline-color"> [</span><strong>QS
Ar Ruum ayat 48</strong><span class="has-inline-color">]</span></p>
<p>
</p><div class="wp-caption aligncenter" data-shortcode="caption" id="attachment_326" style="text-align: center; width: 310px;"><img alt="" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-326" class="size-medium wp-image-326" data-attachment-id="326" data-comments-opened="0" data-image-description="<p>Per tahunnya, air hujan yang menguap dan turun kembali ke Bumi dalam bentuk hujan berjumlah “tetap”: yakni 513 triliun ton. Jumlah yang tetap ini dinyatakan dalam Al Qur’an dengan menggunakan istilah “menurunkan air dari langit menurut kadar”. Tetapnya jumlah ini sangatlah penting bagi keberlangsungan keseimbangan ekologi dan, tentu saja, kelangsungan kehidupan ini,..</p>
" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"0"}" data-image-title="Per tahunnya, air hujan yang menguap dan turun kembali ke Bumi dalam bentuk hujan berjumlah “tetap”: yakni 513 triliun ton. Jumlah yang tetap ini dinyatakan dalam Al Qur’an dengan menggunakan istilah “menurunkan air dari langit menurut kadar”. Tetapnya jumlah ini sangatlah penting bagi keberlangsungan keseimbangan ekologi dan, tentu saja, kelangsungan kehidupan ini,.." data-large-file="https://theprameres.files.wordpress.com/2017/04/snap-2017-04-16-at-17-53-14.jpg?w=567" data-medium-file="https://theprameres.files.wordpress.com/2017/04/snap-2017-04-16-at-17-53-14.jpg?w=300" data-orig-file="https://theprameres.files.wordpress.com/2017/04/snap-2017-04-16-at-17-53-14.jpg" data-orig-size="567,133" data-permalink="https://theprameres.wordpress.com/2017/04/16/kadar-hujan-menurut-sains-modern-dan-al-quran/snap-2017-04-16-at-17-53-14/" height="70" src="https://theprameres.files.wordpress.com/2017/04/snap-2017-04-16-at-17-53-14.jpg?w=300&h=70" width="300" /><p class="wp-caption-text" id="caption-attachment-326">Per
tahunnya, air hujan yang menguap dan turun kembali ke Bumi dalam bentuk
hujan berjumlah “tetap”: yakni 513 triliun ton. Jumlah yang tetap ini
dinyatakan dalam Al Qur’an dengan menggunakan istilah “menurunkan air
dari langit menurut kadar”. Tetapnya jumlah ini sangatlah penting bagi
keberlangsungan keseimbangan ekologi dan, tentu saja, kelangsungan
kehidupan ini,..</p></div><p></p><p><strong>Tahap 1: </strong><span class="has-inline-color">“</span><em><b>Dialah
Allah Yang mengirimkan angin</b></em><span class="has-inline-color">…”</span></p>
<p>Matahari yang memancarkan sinarnya tidak bisa menyinari dengan intensitas
penyinaran yang sama antara satu tempat dengan tempat yang lainnya, kalaupun
suatu daerah mendapat intensitas yang hampir sama antara lautan dan daratan
daya serap panasnya juga berbeda sehingga menyebabkan perbedaan tekanan udara.
Selain rotasi bumi, perbedaan tekanan udara juga menyebabkan terjadinya angin.
Angin merupakan udara yang bergerak dari daerah yang mempunyai tekanan tinggi
ke daerah yang mempunyai tekanan rendah, atau dari daerah yang bersuhu rendah
ke daerah yang bersuhu tinggi. Angin tidak dapat kita lihat, namun dapat dengan
mudah kita rasakan.</p>
<p>Kalau kita amati angin akan datang berhembus sebelum turun hujan. Hal ini
sesuai <strong>QS Al A’raf ayat 57</strong></p>
<p><span class="has-inline-color">“Dan Dialah yang meniupkan angin sebagai
pembawa berita gembira sebelum kedatangan rahmat-Nya (hujan); hingga apabila
angin itu telah membawa awan mendung, Kami halau ke suatu daerah yang tandus,
lalu Kami turunkan hujan di daerah itu</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcm1yL5ibTXXJh6fnJMcqiKfs4Ur1CA9PkG9_XoJBVXh22DpQC277Hh9MY_Ot0q6_iAMlgZvTJHc1DUnwBsvbxQ6crjgL1aZ9Tp-Pzb8RiQGdV6ex_L1SyQjRfwJOn17TfY6fVhsOeDa4G/s751/siklus-hidrologi.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="481" data-original-width="751" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcm1yL5ibTXXJh6fnJMcqiKfs4Ur1CA9PkG9_XoJBVXh22DpQC277Hh9MY_Ot0q6_iAMlgZvTJHc1DUnwBsvbxQ6crjgL1aZ9Tp-Pzb8RiQGdV6ex_L1SyQjRfwJOn17TfY6fVhsOeDa4G/s320/siklus-hidrologi.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br />…”<p></p><p><span class="has-inline-color"> </span></p>
<figure class="aligncenter size-large">Angin
darat dan angin laut terjadi karena perbedaan tekanan udara
</figure>
<p><strong>TAHAP 2: </strong><span class="has-inline-color">“…</span><em><b>dan
yang menggerakkan awan; lalu Ia membentangkannya di langit sesuai dengan
kehendak-Nya, dan menjadikannya bergumpal-gumpal</b></em><span class="has-inline-color">…”</span></p>
<p>Saat matahari bersinar memancarkan cahaya ke daratan dan lautan terjadi
penguapan dari laut, danau dan sungai-sungai. Gelembung-gelembung udara yang
tak terhitung yang dibentuk dengan penguapan yang pecah terus-menerus dan
menyebabkan partikel-partikel air tersembur menuju langit. Partikel-partikel
ini, yang disebut aerosol yang kaya akan garam, lalu diangkut oleh angin dan
bergerak ke atas di atmosfir. Partikel-partikel ini, yang disebut aerosol,
membentuk awan dengan mengumpulkan uap air di sekelilingnya, yang naik lagi
dari laut, sebagai titik-titik kecil dengan mekanisme yang disebut “perangkap
air”. Awan-awan terbentuk dari uap air yang mengembun di sekeliling butir-butir
garam atau partikel-partikel debu di udara. Karena air hujan dalam hal ini
sangat kecil (dengan diameter antara 0,01 dan 0,02 mm), awan-awan itu
bergantungan di udara dan terbentang di langit. Jadi, langit ditutupi dengan
awan-awan. Macam awan yang menimbukan hujan. </p><figure class="aligncenter size-large"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEioWyncYw_lJRS10Bhu7v0t4g97D1kagAZk011Z-DO-xs9s9q5PmrEdxZVUxhb-g2Iy-lAa8TItXFIN5S7TKTtVpMQPuKqmhwGxXHnmAm0R3kuAHpXSzEdbqAwAne0G0xZCORukRYSPVCW1/s1023/awan.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="768" data-original-width="1023" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEioWyncYw_lJRS10Bhu7v0t4g97D1kagAZk011Z-DO-xs9s9q5PmrEdxZVUxhb-g2Iy-lAa8TItXFIN5S7TKTtVpMQPuKqmhwGxXHnmAm0R3kuAHpXSzEdbqAwAne0G0xZCORukRYSPVCW1/s320/awan.png" width="320" /></a></div><div style="text-align: center;"> Macam-macam
Awan.
</div></figure>
<p><strong>TAHAP 3: </strong><span class="has-inline-color">“…</span><em><b>lalu
kau lihat air hujan keluar dari celah-celahnya</b></em><span class="has-inline-color">.”</span></p>
<p>Partikel-partikel air yang mengelilingi butir-butir garam dan
partikel-partikel debu itu mengental dan membentuk air hujan. Jadi, air hujan
ini, yang menjadi lebih berat daripada udara, bertolak dari awan, dan mulai
jatuh ke tanah sebagai hujan.</p>
<p>Demikian juga di QS An Nur Ayat 43 <em>“Tidaklah kamu melihat bahwa Allah
mengarak awan, kemudian mengumpulkan antara (bagian-bagian)nya, kemudian
menjadikannya bertindih-tindih, maka kelihatanlah olehmu hujan keluar dari
celah-celahnya</em><span class="has-inline-color"> …”</span></p>
<p>Semua tahap pembentukan hujan telah diceritakan dalam ayat-ayat Al-Qur’an.
Selain itu, tahap-tahap ini dijelaskan dengan urutan yang benar. Sebagaimana
fenomena-fenomena alam lain di bumi, lagi-lagi Al-Qur’an-lah yang menuntun kita
sehingga fenomena alam bisa dijelaskan secara ilmiah dengan fakta-fakta yang
rasional. Semua atas ijin dan kehendak Allah Sang Maha Pencipta.</p>
<p><strong>Disusun dari berbagai sumber</strong></p>
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<![endif]--><br />Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-46825733206778293342020-12-28T16:48:00.003-08:002020-12-28T16:48:42.709-08:00Mineralogi & Petrologi : Pengenalan<h3 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name"><br /></h3>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6SWn6ss4HjXuyP8HEYhXPbh5Y2N9S9ea24rHskzjkUT6BFy7zEVjliyxN-zO1fdUjL-dFeAj6PsBuBQ0dk5Cr6SgghvPMK6Kbf8b8pjIhrIjbxQS9i_kgPOX3GVbEMoGIHvhJ7tQ274hh/s1600/Petrology.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="331" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6SWn6ss4HjXuyP8HEYhXPbh5Y2N9S9ea24rHskzjkUT6BFy7zEVjliyxN-zO1fdUjL-dFeAj6PsBuBQ0dk5Cr6SgghvPMK6Kbf8b8pjIhrIjbxQS9i_kgPOX3GVbEMoGIHvhJ7tQ274hh/s640/Petrology.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span><a name='more'></a></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Petrologi</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> adalah bidang <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">geologi</span>
yang berfokus pada studi mengenai <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">batuan</span> dan kondisi pembentukannya. Ada tiga cabang petrologi,
berkaitan dengan tiga tipe batuan: <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">beku</span>,
<span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">metamorf</span>,
dan <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">sedimen</span>.
Kata petrologi itu sendiri berasal dari kata <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Bahasa Yunani</span>
<i>petra</i>, yang berarti "<span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">batu</span>".</span><br />
<a name="more"></a></div>
<ul style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Petrologi
batuan beku berfokus pada komposisi dan tekstur dari batuan beku (batuan
seperti <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">granit</span>
atau <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">basalt</span> yang telah
mengkristal dari batu lebur atau <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">magma</span>).
Batuan beku mencakup batuan <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">volkanik</span> dan <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">plutonik</span>.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Petrologi
batuan sedimen berfokus pada komposisi dan tekstur dari batuan sedimen
(batuan seperti <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">batu pasir</span> atau <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">batu gamping</span> yang
mengandung partikel-partikel sedimen terikat dengan matrik atau material
lebih halus).</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Petrologi
batuan metamorf berfokus pada komposisi dan tekstur dari batuan metamorf
(batuan seperti <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">batu sabak</span> atau <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">batu
marmer</span> yang bermula dari batuan sedimen atau beku tetapi telah
melalui perubahan kimia, mineralogi atau tekstur dikarenakan kondisi
ekstrim dari tekanan, suhu, atau keduanya)</span></li></ul>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Petrologi memanfaatkan bidang klasik <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">mineralogi</span>,
<span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">petrografi</span> mikroskopis,
dan analisa kimia untuk menggambarkan komposisi dan tekstur batuan. Ahli
petrologi modern juga menyertakan prinsip <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">geokimia</span>
dan <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">geofisika</span>
dalam penelitan kecenderungan dan siklus geokimia dan penggunaan data <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">termodinamika</span>
dan eksperimen untuk lebih mengerti asal batuan.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Petrologi eksperimental menggunakan perlengkapan
tekanan tinggi, suhu tinggi untuk menyelidiki geokimia dan hubungan fasa dari
material alami dan sintetis pada tekanan dan suhu yang ditinggikan. Percobaan
tersebut khususnya berguna utuk menyelidiki batuan pada <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">kerak</span> bagian atas dan <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">mantel</span> bagian atas yang
jarang bertahan dalam perjalanan kepermukaan pada kondisi asli.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b>Kimia Mineral</b><br />
Komposisi kimia suatu mineral merupakan hal yang sangat mendasar, karena
beberapa sifat-sifat mineral/kristal tergantung kepadanya. Sifat-sifat mineral/
kristal tidak hanya tergantung kepada komposisi tetapi juga kepada susunan
meruang dari atom-atom penyusun dan ikatan antar atom-atom penyusun
kristal/mineral.<br />
Daya yang mengikat atom (atau ion, atau grup ion) dari zat pada kristalin
adalah bersifat listrik di alam. Tipe dan intensitasnya sangat berkaitan dengan
sifat-sifat fisik dan kimia dari mineral. Kekerasan, belahan, daya lebur, kelistrikan
dan konduktivitas termal, dan koefisien ekspansi termal berhubungan secara
langsung terhadap daya ikat.<br />
Kimia mineral merupakan suatu ilmu yang dimunculkan pada awal abad ke-19,
setelah dikemukakannya "hukum komposisi tetap" oleh Proust pada tahun
1799, teori atom Dalton pada tahun 1805, dan pengembangan metode analisis kimia
kuantitatif yang akurat. Karena ilmu kimia mineral didasarkan pada pengetahuan
tentang komposisi mineral, kemungkinan dan keterbatasan analisis kimia mineral
harus diketaui dengan baik.</div>
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<u>Prinsip-prinsip kimia yang berhubungan dengan kimia mineral :<br />
</u><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Hukum komposisi tetap</b> (The Law
of Constant Composition) oleh Proust (1799):<br />
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“Perbandingan massa unsur-unsur dalam
tiap senyawa adalah tetap"<br />
</i><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Teori atom</b> Dalton (1805) :<br />
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“Setiap unsur tersusun oleh partikel yang
sangat kecil dan berbentuk seperti bola yang disebut atom.”<br />
</i>Atom dari unsur yang sama bersifat sama sedangkan dari unsur yang berbeda
bersifat berbeda pula. Atom dapat berikatan secara kimiawi menjadi molekul.<br />
<br />
<b>Sifat Fisik Mineral</b><br />
Penentuan nama mineral dapat dilakukan dengan membandingkan sifat-sifat fisik
mineral antara mineral yang satu dengan mineral yang lainnya. Sifat-sifat fisik
mineral tersebut meliputi: warna, kilap (luster), kekerasan (hardness), gores
(streak), belahan (cleavage), pecahan (fracture), struktur/bentuk kristal,
berat jenis, sifat dalam (tenacity), dan kemagnetan.<br />
<br />
<b>Bentuk Kristal </b><br />
Pada wujudnya sebuah kristal itu seluruhnya telah dapat ditentukan secara ilmu
ukur, dengan mengetahui susut-sudut bidangnya. Hingga saat ini baru terdapat 7
macam sistem kristal. Dasar penggolongan sistem kristal tersebut ada tiga hal,
yaitu:<br />
1. Jumlah sumbu kristal,<br />
2. Letak sumbu kristal yang satu dengan yang lain<br />
3. Parameter yang digunakan untuk masing-masing sumbu Kristal</div>
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<br />
Adapun ke tujuh sistem kristal tersebut adalah:<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">1. Sistem isometrik</b>; Sistem ini juga
disebut sistem reguler, bahkan sering dikenal sebagai sistem kubus/kubik.
Jumlah sumbu kristalnya 3 dan saling tegak lurus satu dengan yang lainnya.
Masing-masing sumbu sama panjangnya.<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2. Sistem tetragonal</b>; Sama dengan
sistem isometrik, sistem ini mempunyai 3 sumbu kristal yang masing-masing
saling tegak lurus. Sumbu a dan b mempunyai satuan panjang yang sama. Sedangkan
sumbu c berlainan, dapat lebih panjang atau lebih pendek (umumnya lebih panjang).<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">3. Sistem rombis</b>; Sistem ini disebut
juga orthorombis dan mempunyai 3 sumbu kristal yang saling tegak lurus satu
dengan yang lain. Ketiga sumbu kristal tersebut mempunyai panjang yang berbeda.<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">4.Sistem heksagonal</b>; Sistem ini
mempunyai empat sumbu kristal, dimana sumbu c tegak lurus terhadap ketiga sumbu
yang lain. Sumbu a, b, dan d masing-masing saling membentuk sudut 120o satu
terhadap yang lain. Sumbu a, b, dan d mempunyai panjang yang sama. Sedangkan
panjang c berbeda, dapat lebih panjang atau lebih pendek (umumnya lebih
panjang).<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">5.Sistem trigonal</b>; Beberapa ahli
memasukkan sistem ini ke dalam sistem heksagonal. Demikian pula cara
penggambarannya juga sama. Perbedaannya bila pada trigonal setelah terbentuk
bidang dasar, yang berbentuk segienam kemudian dibuat segitiga dengan
menghubungkan dua titik sudut yang melewati satu titik sudutnya.<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">6. Sistem monoklin</b>; Monoklin artinya
hanya mempunyai satu sumbu yang miring dari tiga sumbu yang dimilikinya. Sumbu
a tegak lurus terhadap sumbu b; b tegak lurus terhadap c, tetapi sumbu c tidak
tegak lurus terhadap sumbu a. Ketiga sumbu tersebut mempunyai panjang yang
tidak sama, umumnya sumbu c yang paling panjang dan sumbu b yang paling pendek.<br />
<br />
<b>Warna </b><br />
Adalah kesan mineral jika terkena cahaya. Warna mineral dap at dibedakan
menjadi dua, yaitu idiokromatik, bila warna mineral selalu tetap, umumnya
dijumpai pada mineral-mineral yang tidak tembus cahaya (opak), seperti galena,
magnetit, pirit; dan alokromatik, bila warna mineral tidak tetap, tergantung
dari material pengotornya. Umumnya terdapat pada mineral-mineral yang tembus
cahaya, seperti kuarsa, kalsit.<br />
<br />
<b>Kilap </b><br />
Adalah kesan mineral akibat pantulan cahaya yang dikenakan padanya. Kilap
dibedakan menjadi dua, yaitu kilap logam dan kilap bukanlogam. Kilap logam
memberikan kesan seperti logam bila terkena cahaya. Kilap ini biasanya dijumpai
pada mineral-mineral yang mengandung logam atau mineral bijih, seperti emas,
galena, pirit, kalkopirit. Kilap bukan-logam tidak memberikan kesan seperti
logam jika terkena cahaya. Kilap jenis ini dapat dibedakan menjadi :<br />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -18pt;">
Ø<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Kilap
kaca (vitreous luster)<br />
memberikan kesan seperti kaca bila terkena cahaya, misalnya: kalsit, kuarsa,
halit.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -18pt;">
Ø<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Kilap
intan (adamantine luster)<br />
memberikan kesan cemerlang seperti intan, contohnya intan</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -18pt;">
Ø<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Kilap
sutera (silky luster)<br />
memberikan kesan seperti sutera, umumnya terdapat pada mineral yang mempunyai
struktur serat, seperti asbes, aktinolit, gypsum</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -18pt;">
Ø<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Kilap
damar (resinous luster)<br />
memberikan kesan seperti damar, contohnya: sfalerit dan resin</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -18pt;">
Ø<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Kilap
mutiara (pearly luster)<br />
memberikan kesan seperti mutiara atau seperti bagian dalam dari kulit kerang,
misalnya talk, dolomit, muskovit, dan tremolit.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -18pt;">
Ø<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Kilap
lemak (greasy luster)<br />
menyerupai lemak atau sabun, contonya talk, serpentin</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -18pt;">
Ø<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Kilap
tanah (earthy) atau kirap guram (dull)<br />
kenampakannya buram seperti tanah, misalnya: kaolin, limonit, bentonit.<br />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></div>
<br />
<b>Kekerasan</b><br />
Adalah ketahanan mineral terhadap suatu goresan. Secara relatif sifat fisik ini
ditentukan dengan menggunakan skala Mohs (1773 – 1839), yang dimulai dari skala
1 yang paling lunak hingga skala 10 untuk mineral yang paling keras. Skala Mohs
tersebut meliputi (1) talk, (2) gipsum, (3) kalsit, (4) fluorit, (5) apatit,
(6) feldspar, (7) kuarsa, (8) topaz, (9) korundum, dan (10) intan.<br />
Masing-masing mineral tersebut diatas dapat menggores mineral lain yang
bernomor lebih kecil dan dapat digores oleh mineral lain yang bernonor lebih
besar. Dengan lain perkataan SKALA MOHS adalah Skala relative. Dari segi
kekerasan mutlak skala ini masih dapat dipakai sampai yang ke 9, artinya no. 9
kira-kira 9 kali sekeras no. 1, tetapi bagi no. 10 adalah 42 kali sekeras no. 1<br />
Untuk pengukuran kekerasan ini, dapat digunakan alat sederhana seperti kku
tangan, pisau baja dan lain-lain.<br />
<span class="fullpost">
</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-31161245027356125862020-12-28T16:47:00.000-08:002020-12-28T16:47:10.945-08:00Batuan Beku : Struktur dan Tekstur <h3 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name"><br /></h3>
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<b> BATUAN BEKU: STRUKTUR
DAN TEKSTUR</b></div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoZ2yRHU4Hn8BXz6iGHpg0uZKxQE9G6uXGCL2XDHLAj729gVrm8fPl1EH4zh6_hrEN2zUXgHAiU4AanoSQboHzfFRq0DKxEMFI2C4Snjp-Esyh6DUuqw1gLGsgsmRjBF5vzpSAZNeAJVUs/s1600/Batuan+Beku.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="288" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoZ2yRHU4Hn8BXz6iGHpg0uZKxQE9G6uXGCL2XDHLAj729gVrm8fPl1EH4zh6_hrEN2zUXgHAiU4AanoSQboHzfFRq0DKxEMFI2C4Snjp-Esyh6DUuqw1gLGsgsmRjBF5vzpSAZNeAJVUs/s400/Batuan+Beku.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span><a name='more'></a></span><b><br /></b></div>
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Magma
terbentuk dalam mantel dan kerak bawah (<i>lower
crust</i>). Keluar ke permukaan karena memiliki berat jenislebih ringan (lebih
tidak padat) <i>or less denser</i>dari
batuan sekitarnya. Magma dapat mengalami kritasilasi secara parsial (sebagian)
ataupun secara keseluruhan pada kedalaman yang bervariasi dalam kerak, atau
dapat mengalami kristalisasi dekat permukaan bumi. Atau secara sederhana produk
dari kristalisasi magma adalah batuan beku. Ketika magma mendekati permukaan
dan berhenti kemudian, akan membentuk batuan volkanik. Sementara yang terbentuk
di kedalaman dan mengalami kristalisasi disana akan membentuk batuan plutonik.<br />
<a name="more"></a>Asal
mula dari batuan dengan mengetahui proses kristalisasinya selama erupsi volkanik
berlangsung dapat mudah dipahami melalui hubungan-hubungan yang umum dijumpai. Sebagai
contoh geologist dapat memahami proses yang terjadi saat kristalisasi tanpa perlu
harus mengamati langsung bagaimana magma itu mengkristal membentuk batuan. Cukup
dari data singkapan batuan beku yang sudah terbentuk untuk dilakukan pengamatan
lebih lanjut. Tapi banyak pertanyaan akan muncul. Bagaimana batuan beku ini
dapat dikenali? Bagaimana membedakan satu jenis batuan beku dan lainnya?? Dan
bagaimana proses kristalisasi terjadi?</div>
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<br /></div>
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Jawaban
untuk pertanyaaan ini dapat diperoleh melalui: (1) observasi lapangan dari
hasil erupsi volkanik yang telah ada (present is the key to the past), (2) pengamtan
lapangan terhadapciri yang hadir dari batuan beku yang ada, (3) studi
laboratorium terhadap mineralogi dan tekstur dari batuan beku, (4) analisis
kimia dari batuan beku, (5) studi laboratorium dari proses kimia dan perilaku
kristalisasi saat melt (kondisi leburan dimana seluruh fase kristal masih cair),
(6)aplikasi dari pemikiran induktif dan deduktif.<br />
<br /></div>
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Batuan
beku diketahui, dideskripsi, diberi nama, dan diklasifikasi berdasarakan
struktur, tekstur, dan komposisi. Komposisi termasuk kedalam komposisi mineral
dan kimia. Tekstur adalah karakter fisik dari batuan, termasuk ukuran, bentuk
orientasi, dan distribusi dari butir dan hubungan antar butir. Struktur adalah ciri
(feature) yang hadir pada batuan, yang lebih besar dari grain, holes, fracture,
atau kesluruhan massa dari batuan. Tekstur dan struktur dari batuan beku berguna
untuk membedakan batuan beku dan batuan lainnya.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b>PENGENALAN BATUAN BEKU</b></div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
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Pengenalan
batuan beku secara umum dimulai dilapangan. Terdapat struktur batuan yang dikenali
dilapangan dapat menjadi petunjuk proses petrogenesis. Juga dilapangan, lup
digunakan untuk mengamtai mineral dantekstru batuan. Setelahnya, studi
laboratoriaum, termasuk pengamatan mineral dan tekstur melalui analsis dengan mikroskop
petrografi dan elektron, memudahkan pemahaman yang lebih besar lagi untuk tiap
jenis batuan yang diamati.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b>STRUKTUR BATUAN BEKU</b></div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
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Berdasarkan
strukturnya batuan beku dibagi kedalam dua kelompok utama yaitu tipe batuan beku
ekstrusif dan intrusif.Struktur ekstrusif dibentuk ketika magma dipaksa keluar
ke permukaan. Struktur intrusif merupakan struktur yang terbentuk dibawah
permukaan. </div>
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<br /></div>
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1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span>STRUKTUR EKSTRUSIF</div>
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Struktur ekstrusif dibagi kedalam tiga kelompok utama: major,
intermediet, dan minor (besar, sedang kecil)- pengelompokan ini dibagi
berdasarkan ukuran dari struktur ekstrusif yang hadir dilapangan.Sebagai contohuntuk
strukur yang major salah satunya dikenal ada lava plateu dan basaltic plain,
memiliki bentuk tabular dan mengandung <i>poor-silica</i>
(miskin silaca karena basaltik)merupakan batuan volkanik. <br />
<br /></div>
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Lava plateu keterdaptannya sangat luas dan banyak dimuka
bumi, umurnya pun sangat tua sekali dari prekambrian sampai kenozoik. Contohnya
di Parana Brazil berumur jurasik hingga kapur awal.Lava plateu secara primer terdiri
material hasil aliran lava, hasil solidifiasi masa dari fluida basaltik yang mengalir
melewati permukaan dan mengalami kristalisasi. Secaras khas, lava flow ini dipasok
oleh magma yang keluar ke permukaan melalui sistem rekahan yang hadir, mengalir
cukup jauh, dan terakumulasi membentuk layer gundukan magma. Hanya sedikit dari
batuan piroklastik yang berisi fragmen dari batuan volkanik terbentuk dari
hasil erupsi eksplosif membentuk plateu seperti pada lava plateu.<br />
<br /></div>
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Adapun basaltic plain berbeda dengan plateu karena terbetnuk
dari hasil unit aliran lava ganda yang tererupsi dari satu (lubang erupsi),
yang menutupi pusat erupsi (Greeley, 1982). Pusat ini dinamakan <i>shield cone</i>, yaitu dataran yang
berbentuk kerucut hasildari akumulasi lava yang mengandung jumlah minor dari interlayer
(lapisan lapisan) material piroklastik.<br />
<br /></div>
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Menutupi area yang sama, namun memiliki volume yang lebih
kecil dinamakan pyroclastic sheet. Pyroclastic sheet adalah akumulasi dari material
volkanik (piroklastik) kaya silika, atau material piroklastik yang terlontar
keluar hasil erupsi eksplosif. Partikel partikel pada endapanini dikenal dengan
ash falls terkadang dapat terjadi melalui proses aliran piroklastik (dikenal
dengan nuee ardentee)-hasil pergerakan awan panas yang sangat cepat. Masa
batuan yang terbentuk dari hasil aliran piroklastik ini dikenal dengan
ignimbrite atau ash flow. Ignimbrit terdiri dari butiran halus (<2 mm) dari
material piroklastik yang disebut ash, yang cerah khas mengalami kompaksi
karena berat material yang berada diatasnya dan secara lokal kadang mengalami
pemaanggangan (welded) akibat panas yang hadir saat aliran. Pyroclastic sheet
dapat hadir dalam satu unit unggal karena mengalami pendingian pada satu waktu
(single cooling unit) atau memiliki set unit ketebalan karena mengalami sejarah
pendinginan yang komplek (composite cooling unit).<br />
<br /></div>
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Composite cone, atau stratovolkano, sesuai namanya berisi
layer dari material piroklastik dan lava. Memiliki lereng yang curam dan
membentuk cone (kerucut) gunung api. Batuan yang mengisi composite cone terdiri
dari kelompok silica poor (basalt), batuan intermediet (contohnya andesit),
hingga batuan tipe asam kaya silica (ryolith). Contoh endapanya diantaranya di
cascade range California banyak dijumpai di island arc.<br />
<br /></div>
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Caldera merupakan depresi circular yang besar hasil dari erupsi
yang diikuti dengan collapse dari suatu struktur volcanic (Howell Williams,
1941). Uplift yang terjadi setelahnya di pusat dome dapat terjadi, dan caldera
tipe ini dikenal dengan resurgent caldera, contohnya di Crater lake, Oregon,
New mexico atau gunung Krakatau Indonesia. Adapun Crater (kawah) juga merupakan
depresi, tapi merpakan hasil dari aktivitas erupsi langusng dari suatu gunung
api tapi namun tidak diikuti dengan collaps. Dari ukurannya crater lebih kecil
dari caldera, dengan radius kurang dari 1 km.</div>
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Pyroclastic cone, juga dikenal dengan istilah cinder cone, bentuknya
lebih kecil, dan memiliki sayap yang curam tersusun oleh sebagian besar piroklast
(material piroklastik) dari berbagai ukuran, dengan atau sedikit atau tanpa
lava. Kerucut kecil ini berasosiasi dengan volkanik arc atau terisolasi, local
volcanic terrane.<br />
<br /></div>
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Volcanic dome,lebih kecil, dengan struktur sayap yang curam
seperti cangkir yang terbalik atau kerucut. Terbentuk dari hasil intrusi,
ekstrusi, atau keduanya dari magma yang bersifat siliceous dan kental. Dome ini
biasanya berasosiasi dengan gunung api utama.<br />
<br /></div>
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Lava flow bentuknya tabular hingga lobate, dibagi dua untuk
jenis lava basalt yangberada di hotspot continental(contohnya di hawai) pahoehoe
lava dan aa lava. Pahohoe cenderung lebih bertekstur halus sedangkan aa lava
lebih kasar. Dibawah flow surface, pendinginan yang terjadi secara mendadak
dapat membentuk struktur columnar joint.Ketika lava keluar dan melewati batuan atau tanah hasil erosi
maka akan membentuk suatu zona seperti bata merah dari material teroksidasi
yang dikenal dengan baked zone.<br />
<br /></div>
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Fragmen aliran lava
yang telah membeku seelumnya dapat lepas dan masuk ke dalam aliran lava
baru dan struktru ini dikenal dengan autolith. Sedangkan batuan asing yang
masuk ke dalam sebagai ingklusi disebut xenolith. Gas yang yang keluar bebas
dari aliran lava akan meninggalkan lubang yang disebut vesicle. Jika vesicle
ini kemudian diisi oleh mineral sekunder seperti kuarsa, kalsit, atau zeolit
maka disebut amygdule. Inklusi, vesicle, atau butir mineral yang membentuk
suatu arah yang liniear searah denga liran lava memiliki struktur flow banding.<br />
<br /></div>
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Magma terfragmentasi membentuk klastika volkanik (piroklastik)
melewati beberapa proses meliputi: (1) menurunya tekanan dalam magma ketika
magma keluar, (2) separasi gas dari melt (peleburan), (3) formasi dari
gelembung (formation of bubble) dan (4) transformasi eksplosif dari bubbly
magma membentuk campuran fragmen gas yang tererupsi dari vent (Sugioka dan
Brusik 1995; Papale 1999). Material volkaniklastik, terfragmentasi saat erupsi,
dinamakan pyroclast dan dibagi kedalam tiga kelompok berdasarkan ukurannya
(Schmid, 1981). Mengingat bahwa abu (ash) merupakan meterial yang sangat kecil <
2 mm. istilah lapili adalah pyroclast berukuran 2.0-64 mm untuk diameternya. Bombs
merupakan bagian yang masih cair sebagian pada saat transportasi dan membentuk
ukuran akumulasi yang lebih besar dari ash.<br />
<br /></div>
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Sementara batuan yang terdiri dari block dinamakan breksi,
hadir dalam kondisi telah padat (solid state) sehingga terkadang telah
terbentuk didalam dan terlontar keluar biasanya hasil gerusan country rock
(batuan volkanik samping yang sudah ada sebelumnya) ataupun dari hasil
pembekuan magma didalam yang ikut terlontar keluar.<br />
<br /></div>
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<b>Struktur</b></div>
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<b>Dimensi dan kisaran</b></div>
</td>
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<b>volume</b></div>
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<b>Struktur mayor
(besar)</b></div>
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<b>Lava plateu dan basaltic plain</b></div>
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T = < 10<sup>-3</sup>– 12, A = ?-2x10<sup>6</sup></div>
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6 x 10<sup>4</sup> – 6.5 x 10<sup>5</sup></div>
</td>
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<tr>
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<b>Pyroclastic sheet</b></div>
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T =<10<sup>-3</sup> – 2.5, A=20-2.0<sup>5</sup>x10<sup>5</sup></div>
</td>
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<10-10<sup>5</sup></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
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<b>Shield cone</b></div>
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<b>(shield volcano)</b></div>
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T = <0.1-4.2, R=<1-100</div>
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<10<sup>3</sup>-4x10<sup>4</sup></div>
</td>
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<b>Composite cone</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>(stratovolcano)</b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
T=<1-3.7,R=<1-20</div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
1-870</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Caldera</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>(termasuk cauldron)</b></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
A=8-12000, R=1.5-6.2</div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
-</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 6.65in;" valign="top" width="638"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Struktur intermediet (ukuran
menengah)</b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Pyroclastic sheet</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>(single cooling unit)</b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
T = <10<sup>-3</sup> – 1.8 A = <1->10<sup>5</sup></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
10<sup>-3</sup>-8300</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Pyroclastic cone</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>(cinder cone)</b></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
T= 0.01 – 0.46, R = 0.05-1.5</div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
1.5 x 10<sup>-4</sup> – 3.25</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Lava flow</b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
T = 10<sup>-4</sup> – 0.24, A = <0.1-18000</div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<0.1-1200</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Dome</b></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
T=<10<sup>-2</sup>- 0.8</div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
3 x 10<sup>-6</sup>-4</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 6.65in;" valign="top" width="638"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Struktur kecil (minor)</b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Kawah (crater)</b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Bomb</div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
xenolith</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Lithopysae</b></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Autolith</div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Lava flow</b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Spatter cone and hornito</div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Pressure ridge</b></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Pyroclastic sheet </div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Lava tube</b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Squeeze up</div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Columnar joint</b></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Baked zone</div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Flow banding</b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Vesiculated flow top</div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tabel klasifikasi struktur pada batuan vokanik ekstrusif
berdasarkan ukurannya dilapangan.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span>STRUKTUR INTRUSIF</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Seperti halnya struktur ekstrusif struktur intrusif juga
dibagi ke dalam struktur mayor, intermediet, dan minor. Pembagian ini juga sama
berdasarkan dimensi dan persebarannya. Untuk struktur pada kelompok intermediet
samapi major seringkali dsebut dengan istilah pluton (tubuh raksasa batuan
intrusi plutonik), oleh karenanya batuan intrusif seringkali disebut sebagai
batuan plutonik. Dan seringkali secara khas berasosiasi dengan batuan
bertekstur ‘granitik’.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Batholith dan lopolith merupakan dua jenis struktur intrusif
yang paling besar, dapat mencapai 100 km2 luasnya. Semetnara batuan plutonik
dengan luas tubuh kurang dari 100 km2 dinamakan stock.</div>
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Pada literatur terdahulu, batholith seringkali digambarkan
memiliki tepi yang curam, tubuh silinder dengan kedalaman yang cukup dalam. Dan
tidak memiliki dasar. Sementara penelitian terbaru menggambarkan batholith itu
merupakan tubuh intrusi berbentuk lensa raksasa. Tapi apapun bentuknya batolith
tetap merupakan jenis intrusi plutonik paling besar.<br />
<br /></div>
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Terlepas dari perdebatan ukuran dan bentuk batolith dan stock
Buddington (1959) memberikan klasifikasi mengenai pluton berdasarkan kedalaman
keterbentukannya. Yaitu Epizonal (shallow), mesozonal (intermediet), dan
Catazonal (deep). <br />
<br /></div>
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<tbody>
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feature</div>
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epizone</div>
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mesozone</div>
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Catazone</div>
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</tr>
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Depth of emplacement (km)</div>
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0-6.5(-10)</div>
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(6.5-)8-14-(-16)</div>
</td>
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(9-)11-19</div>
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</tr>
<tr>
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Field criteria</div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
</td>
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<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
contacts</div>
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Typically discordant</div>
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variable</div>
</td>
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Concordant</div>
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</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Homogenity of body</div>
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Homogenous to complete</div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
composite</div>
</td>
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Homogenous to composite</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Roof pendants</div>
</td>
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common</div>
</td>
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common</div>
</td>
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Uncommon</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
foliation</div>
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Absent or local at contacts</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Common</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Common and parallel to regional trends</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Association with volcanic rocks</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Common</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Inderect, but present locally</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
none</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Local deformation at contact</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
common</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Present in some cases</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Absent</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Size of pluton</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Small to moderate</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Small to large</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Small to large</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Contact metamorphism</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Very common</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Uncomon</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Absent</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Chilled margin</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Commont</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
absent</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
absent</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Associated dikes</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Aplitic, phorphytic, lamprophyric</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Aplitic, pegmatitic</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Migmatitic</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Miarolitic cavities</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Present</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
absent</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
absent</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Asociated migmatites</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
none</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
mnor</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Common</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 27.85pt; mso-yfti-irow: 15;">
<td colspan="4" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 27.85pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 6.65in;" valign="top" width="638"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Interpretive criteria</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Surrounding metamorphic facies</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Nonte to greenschist facies</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Greenschist to amphibolite facies</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Amphibolite to granulite facies</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Temperature in country rocks (°C)</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
0-450</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
250-500</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
450-700</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Typical age</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Cenozoic</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Mesozoic-paleozoic</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Paleozoic or older</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Epizonal kehadirannya cenderung konkordant (memotong batuan
disekitarnya), sementara catazonal cenderung sejajar dan melensa dan mesozonal
dapat bervariasi.Jika terjadi kontak dari pluton epizonal akan membentuk pola
chilled margin (atau tepi yang bertekstur halus akibat pendinginan yang terjadi
sat kontak batuan pluton dan batuan tepi yang lebih dingin). Sementara pada
catazonal hal ini jarang terjadi karena terbentuk dikondisi yang dalam dan
temperatur dan tekanan yang besarnya sama dengan batuan samping. Istilah
struktur roof pendant merupakan massa batuan yang menggantung diatas pluton
(batuan ini merupakan batuan samping yang menjadi atap (roof) dari pluton) saat
erosi terjadi batuan roof ini masih tersisa dan membentuk struktur roof pendant
ini.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Struktur miarolitic cavity merupakan suatu rongga dalam
batuan yang terisi pertumbuhan mineral lain. Biasanya hadir dalam batuan
ekstrusif dekat permukaan dalam hal ini untuk kasus intrusif tentu epizonal lah
yang paling mungkin banyak kehadiran struktur ini sementara pada catazonal
jarang. Biasanya miarolitic cavity ini lebih cenderng ke tekstur daripada
struktur. <br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Untuk struktur struktur berbentuk alignment (kelurusan) atau
fabric mengacu kepada suatu struktur yang terjadi akibat adanya kelurusan-kelurusan
susunan komponen mineral atau batuan. Kelurusan dari xenolith yang terbentuk
pada suatu pluton dan membentuk pola arch (melengkung) maka disebut schlieren
dome dan arch. Biasanya banyak pada mesozonal pluton.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Lopolith merupakan struktur tubh batuan beku intrusif dengan
bentuk atap yang melengkung (cekung). Meskipun struktur ini tidak umum dijumpai
tapi merekamenarik diplajari khususnya untuk komposisi batuan yang basa dan
ultrabasa karena alasan ekonomis (entah apa yah).<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Laccolith, phacolith, dan sill merupakan struktur konkordan
(sejajar dengan lapisan batuan) dengan ukuran yang sedang. Laccolith lebih
pendek dan lebih tebal dari sill dan memiliki cembungan yang lebih menjorok
keatas mendorong layer diatasnya. Phacolith merupakan intrusi yang lenticular
(membentuk lensa) yang berada pada sumbu lipatan (Gilbert 1980). Dike merupakan
(pluton berbentuk tabular) yang memanjang dari atas ke bawah, Gilbert
menginterpretasuikannya sebagai asal muasal magma pembawa laccolith, namun saat
ini pernyataan ini masih kontroversi dan pelru bukti lanjut.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Dike merupakan tipe intrusi dikordan. Hadir dalam berbagai
bentuk dan komposisi dan dapat simple (terbentuk dari satu kali intrusi),
multiple (dua kali intrusi), atau composite (beberapa kali intrusi dengan tipe
magmayang berbeda).<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Ring dike dan cone sheet merupakan jenis dike yang khas. Ring
dike seringkali berukuran besar dan vertikal dan memiliki bentuk silinder. Dike
ini, berada diatas dapur magma, umumnya berasosiasi dengan cauldron collapse. <br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Dike menjadi conduit (saluran) bagi migrasi magma ke
permukaan. Erosi yang terjadi akan membentuk volcanic neck. Funnel merupakan
tubuh batuan plutonik padat yang membentuk layering dengan dip ke dalam, hampir
mirip seperti cone sheet. Cupole merupakan kenampakan menyerupai stock dari
batuan plutonik yang terpisah dari batuan plutonik yang lebih besar oleh
country rock dan dipercaya masih memiliki hubungan (masih nyambung sama)dengan
batuan plutonik yang lebih besar. Schlieren (juga dikenal dengan layer aliran)
merupakan bentuk tubuh intrusi tabular, tersebar, memiliki konsentrasi mineral
tertentu yang membentuk disk (lengkung seperti disk) dalam massa batuan beku
(balk, 1937), namun batasnyanya juga tersebar, schlieran dapat terlihat akibat
konsentrasi dari mineral lebih melimpah dalam mengisi bentuk disknya itu.
Ketika magma bergerak schlieren terorientasi memanjang paralel denganaliran,
khsusunya ketika terkonsentrasi dekat dengan batas pluton. <br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Struktur yang lebih kecil termasuk variasi dalam tabel
dibawah ini. Struktur apophysis bentuknya pendek, dike yang tidak teratur yang
meluas dari puton margin ke country rock (batuan samping yang diterobos). Vein,
merupakan struktur yang ada pada batuan yang telah mengalami retakan akibat
deformasi dan terisi mineral (fracture filling). Istilah xenolith dan autolith
mengacu kepada inklusi batuan dalam batuan. Dimana xenolith merupakan tubh
kecil dari material yang dijumpai dalam batuan plutonik (terkadang dikenal juga
dengan accidental inclusions). Adapun autolith terkadang disebut cognate
inclusion (inklusi seasal) yaitu terbentuk ketika suatu magma tersolidifikasi
namun kemudian runtuh sebagian tubuhnya masuk ke cairan magma yang belum
mengalami kristalisasi dan jika tidak melebur terbentuklah autolith.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Foliasi, lineasi, dan layering merupakan struktur yang dapat
mencirikan batuan pada beberapa tubuh intrusi. Foliasi merupakan suatu struktur
planar yang dapat membentuk karakter akumulasi mineral menyerupai daun yang
terbentuk dari hasil aliran, kompaksi, atau deformasi yang menjadi fungsi dari
keluiusan paralel yang dibentuk baik mendatar (seperti lembaran) maupun
menjarum (acicular). (Peerson et al 1998). Lineasi merupakan ciri yang hadir
dari kelurusan paralel dari mienral lurus yang memotohng ciri planar yang ada.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Layer juga hadir dalam batuan beku layer ini bentuknya
berlembar membentuk distribusi komposisi mineral, tekstrut, atau keduanya
(irvine 1982). Secara khas layer berkembang pada magma silika rendah saat
pendinginan terjadi dan tingkat kristalisasi yang cukup lambat memungkinkan
krstal tenggelam atau mengembang pada cairan sisa. Ciri layering yang tidak
berhubungan dengan intrusi dinamakan bands (Itvine 1982). Berbagai jenis dari
batuan beku, termasuk flow band dalam batuan volkanik dan beberapa orbicular
dan comb-layer structre dalam batuan plutonik.<br />
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableLightShading" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 106.5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 319.2pt;" valign="top" width="426"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Major</b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Batolith</div>
</td>
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Lopolith</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Stock</div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Roof pendant</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
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<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 319.2pt;" valign="top" width="426"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Intermediet</b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Stock</div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Sill</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Dike </div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Laccolith</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Cone sheet</div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Phacolith</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Pipe (neck, vent)</div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Bysmalith</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Funnel</div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Roof pendant</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Cupola</div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Schlieren dome/arch</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 319.2pt;" valign="top" width="426"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Minor</b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Dike</div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Schilieren</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Apophysis</div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Xenolith</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Vein</div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Autolith</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Sill</div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Layering</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: silver; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
foliation</div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
lineation</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b>TEKSTUR BATUAN BEKU</b><br />
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Magma
adalah larutan kompleks, karena menurunnya temperatur, perubahan tekanan, atau
perubahan komposisi, larutan ini akan mengkristalisasi, atau membeku dengan
cepat tanpa membentuk kristal. Produk akhir dari kristalissasi atau
solidifikasi adalah batuan yang terdiri dari interlocking crystals
(kristal-kristal yang saling mengunci satu sama lain) yang dikelilingi oleh
atau tanpa gelas. Jika magma terfragmentasi melalui erupsi ekslosif gas akan
dibebaskan bersama, kristal, gelas, dan batuan dapat terakumulasi dan terlitifiakasi
membentuk batuan. Apapun sejarahnya material2 erupsi dapat berupa: gelas,
kristal, fragmen gelas, kristal , atau batuan. Karakteristik dan hubungan dari
material ini dapat berupa: hubungan ukuran butir, bentuk butir, orientasi
butir, hubungan batas butir (kontak butir), dan kristalinitas batuan- dan semua
hubungan-hubungan ini dikenal dengan tekstur batuan.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Batuan
beku dengan susunan butir berupa interlocking crystal memiliki tekstur
kristalin, sementara yang tersusun dari fragmen klastik atau lebih khusus lagi
akan membentuk tekstur piroklastik (maka dikenal sebagai batuan piroklastik
meski sumbernya sama dengan batuan beku). Kristalinitas dan dominasi ukuran
butir dalam batuan beku secara tekstrual dibagi menjadi: holokristalin (semua
butir tersusun dari kristal), tekstur holohyalin dimana semuanya tersusun dari
gelas. Dan tekstur kombinasi antara keduanya dikenal dengan tekstur
hipokristalin. Sementara dari ukuran butirnya dikenal tekstur afanitik untuk
akumulasi butir penyusun yang halus dan faneritik untuk akumulasi butir yang
kasar, sementara kombinasi keduanya dikenal dengan tekstur porfiritik.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Sementara
untuk ukuran butir yang sangat kasar dikenal tekstur pegmatitik (>3 cm),
terkadang banyak dijumpai pada batuan siliceous (granitioid) (pluton yang
sangat asam sekali). Istilah fenokris ditujukan kepada butir mineral yang besar
dan groundmass untuk butir kecil (matrik) yang mengelilinginya pada batuan
beku.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Batuan
volkanik yang miskin fenokris dapat disebut memiliki tekstur aphyric sementara
yang kaya fenokris bertekstur phyric. Pada tekstru mikroskopis, baik fenokris
amupun groundmass sifatnya afanitik. Jika fenokrisnya faneritik namun
groundmassnya afanitik maka teksturnya disebut afanitik-porfiritik. Jika kedua
groundmass dan fenokris sifatnya faneritik (besar dan mudah diidentifikasi
keduanya) maka teksturnya disebut faneritik-porfiritik.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Bentuk
kristal juga memiliki istilah deskriptif dan tekstur tersendiri seperti tekstur
idiomorfphic-granular dimana dominasi butir kristal penyusunnya adalah
euhedral. Hipidiomorfik dominan disusun oleh kristal subhedral. Dan
alotriomorfik granular adalah istilah tekstur batuan yang disusun oleh dominan
kristal anhedral.Sementara
tekstur dengan bentuk akumulasi kristal khusus, orientasi tertentu, dan interelasi,
atau ciri internal memiliki nama tersendiri.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Dalam
banyak kasus<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_GoBack"></a>, pengamatan detil dari tekstur volkanik
tidak dapat diamati tanpa bantuan mikroskop. Beberapa tekstur volkanik seperti:
sferulitik, votrofirik, intersertal, intergranular, subofitik, dan ofitik merupakan
tekstur tekstur yang dapat diamati dibawah mikroskop. Tekstur vitrofirik merupakan
tekstur yang hadir berupa fenokris yang tertanam dalam glassy groundmass
(groundmass gelas). Pada batuan porfiritik dimana plagioklas menjadi jumlah
yang dominan dari batuan, dengan sisanya berupa gelas dan kristal kecil darei
material lain maka dinamakan bertekstur intersertal. Jika feldspar feldspar ini
memiliki lineasi (kelurusan) tertentu maka dikenal dengan tekstru trachytic. Tekstru
intergranular merupakan tekstru holokristalin yang mana terdapat butir augit
dalam mineral lain yang hadir mengisi celah dari plagioklas misalnya. Pada
tekstru supopfitik, augit dan plagioklas memiliki ukuran yang sama, dengan augit meliputi sebagian dari
plagioklas, pada tekstur ofitik piroksen memperluas ukuran dari plagioklas,
sehingga banyak latice (kisi) lplagioklas menutupi utiran piroksen.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Lepasnya
gas dari magma mendekati permukaan dan tererupsi membentuk tekstur dan struktur
yang unik. Jika gas-gas yang keluar ini meninggalkan jejak berupa rongga maka dinamakan
bertekstru vesikular.. dan bila rongga ini terisi mineral maka dikenal
tekstur/struktur amigdaloidal. Tekstur pumiceous merupakan tekstur pada
batuapung (pumice) dimana batuan ringan yang ikut terbawa gas yang mencoba bebas melalui rongga batuan
volkanik. <br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tekstrur
poikilitik merupakan kristal besar (oikocryst) yang secara tidak teratur
mentupi kristal kecil atu mineral lain. Tekstru ini khas pada batuan plutonik
biasanya granit. Tekstur ofitik, dijumapi pada batuan plutonik dan volkanik, merupakan
salah satu tipe tipe dari tekstur poikilitik. Tekstru grafik merupakan tekstru
yang sama dengan poikilitik dimana butiran yang lebih besar mentupi bturan
kecil, yang hadir dalam batuan granitoid pegmatitik, terdiri dari kristal yang
besar dari alkali feldspar.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Jika
terdapat tekstur kuarsa yang tumbuh didalam sodic plagioklas maka teksturnya
dikenal dengan myrmektic. Tekstru yang sama juga ada berupa feldspar dalam
alkali feldspar dikenal dengan graphyric. Baik grafirik maupun myrmektik
keduanya merupakan jenis tekstur dari symplectic, merupakan istilah tekstur
yang umum dijumpai berupa wormy (seperti cacing) atau pertumbuhan yang tidak
teratur dari satu mineral dalam inieral lain. Tekstru serate merupakan suatu
tekstru yang terdiri dari butiran berbagai ukuran, yang menggradasi satu sama
lain.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tekstur
dalam batuan plutonik bersilika rendah (< 53% SiO2) termasuk ophitic,
subophitic, diabasic, dan berbagai tekstur kumulasi. Tekstru diabasik merupakan
serti tiga tekstur dari ofitik, subofitik dan diabasik. Pada tekstur diabasik dimana
buriran kasar dari plagioklas kisinya diisi oleh augit atau mineral lain
berbutir kecil. Tekstur kumulat merupakan tekstur yang ada dalam batuan beku
yang mencirikan framework kristal mineral bersentuhan satu sama lain. Material yang
terakumulasi ini terkadang terpanggang oleh postcumulus material atau cairan
magma yang datang terakhir dan mengisi akumulasi mineral yang sudah ada.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tekstur
lainnya dijumpai pada batuan plutonik seperti zoning dalam satu butir. Yang
paling umum adala tekstur zoning. Banyak mineral seperti plagioklas,
klinopiroksen, dan garnet memioliki zoning, tekstru corona (reaction rim)merupakan
tekstru reaksi antar suatu mineral dengan cairan tepi yang kontak dengannya.
Jika suatu mineral tumbuh diantara yang lainnya maka tekstur/strukturnya
dikenal dengan epitaxial. Tekstru rapikivi, merupakan jenis tekstru pada batuan
granitoid, merupakan tekstru yang dicirikan oleh butiran alkali feldspar yang
ditutupi tepinya oleh plagioklas.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b>ASAL MULA TEKSTUR PADA BATUAN BEKU</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Karena
batuan beku terbentuk dari magma, tekstur pada batuan beku dikontrol oleh
proses yang terjadi selama proses kristalisasi dari saat melt. Diagram fase
digunakan untuk menunjukan jenis-jenis mineral (fase) yang muncul selama proses
kristalisasi. Proses proses ini adalah proses kimia dan fisika.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Ketika
material mendingin akan melewati tiga tahapan: 1. Tahap dimana seluruh material
dalam kondisi melt (melebur/ fase cair), 2. Tahap dimanan kristal dan melt
(larutan magma/fase cair tadi) hadir bersama, 3. Tahap dimana semua material
telah padat (solid). Pada diagram sistem albit-anortit terdapat dua separasi
fase yaitu fase dimana semuanya masih berupa liquid (melt) dan zona pada
diagramnya dinamakan liquidus, fase semua mineral telah terbentuk (plagioklas)
dinamakan fase solidus, dan zona antara campuran kristal dan melt.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Proses
yang paling utama yang akanmembentuk struktur kristal dikenal dengan nucleation
(nukleasi) proses ini melibatkan perilaku ikatan atomtertentu yang akan
membentuk struktur dari kristal. Fase liquid lebih dianggap sebagai ketidak
beraturan dari suatu fase padat, dan nuclei (pembentuk dari nukleasi) dibentuk
dan dihancurkan secara konstan melalui pergerakan acak dari atom dalam liquid.
Kristalisasi dari melt, nukleasilah yang akan mengawali dari semua proses
pembentukan kristal, karena ketika suatu struktur dari hasil proses nukleasi
ini terbentuk maka energi yang dibutuhkan akan semakin kecil karena permukaan
untuk nukelasi baru telah terbentuk. Sejarah dan dinamki proses kristalisasi
dari batuan dapat diketahui lebih lanjut melalui analisis CSD (Crystal Size
Distribution) (Marsh 1988). Dimana kristalisasi akan menggambarkan perpindahan
energi dari energi tinggi ke rendah.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Dimanapun
struktur permukaan telah dibentuk dan akan ada energi yang berinteraksi dengan
permukaan tersebut dikenal dengan surface-free energy. Untuk membentuk krsital,
energi harus digunakan untuk membentuk batas permukaan baru. Seperti biasa
nuclei akan dibentuk lebih dahulu terus bernucleasi membentuk nuclei yang lain
dan nucleasi terus berlanjut hingga antar nuclei membentuk struktur permukaanbaru
yang lebih kuat. Nucleasi yang terjadidapat bersifat homogen, dimana nuclei
tumbuh spontan dalam melt, dan memerlukan energi yang besar sedangkan nukleasi
jenis lain dikenal dengan nukleasi heterogen dimana ada pengotor lain yang
mengisi struktur permukaan yang sudah ada sebelumnya dan memerlukan energi yang
lebih rendah karena tidak memerulukan energi untuk menciptakan permukaan baru.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Nukleasi
dikontrol oleh komposisi dari melt, struktur melt, temperatur melt, dan cooling
rate. Untuk komposisi dari melt contohnya olivin tidak akan terbentuk dalam
melt yang tidak mengandung Fe atau Mg). <br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Struktur
dari melt berhubugan dengan kimia dari melt, hingga tempertur maksimummelt akan
terbentuk (masih dalam fase cair) jika struktur melt menyisakan krstal, pertumbuhan
kristal akan semakin mudah, terjadi karena nukleasi heterogen. Masuknya gelas
silika murni akan membentuk jaringan omplek dari tetraherdar SiO4. Pertambahan
berbagai ion ke dalam melt (sperti OH, Ca, Mg) akan merusak struktur ini. Sama
juga dengan suhu yang terlalu tinggi dapat merusak struktur dari nuclei dalam
cairan. Berkurangnnya kemungkinan menahan tetap terjadinya nukelasi heterogen,
Lofgren (1983) berpendapat bahwa nuclei kristal yang melt pada temperatur lebih
rendah dapat terbentuk dalam melt dari mineral dengan temperatur melting
tinggi. Karenanya, dia menyarankan bahwa nukleasi heterogen dapat menjadi
faktor dominan pembentuk tekstur batuan beku. Rupanya, jumlah waktu dari melt akan
mempengaruhi berapa banyak nuclei yang dapat dirusak secara teoritis, jika
nuclei dirusak, nukleasi homogen akan menjadi sangat penting dalam perkembangan
tekstur. Pada kenyataannya, nuclei sisa dari melt yang disebutkan Lofgren
(1983) dan Marh (1998) atau jika tubuh magma mujlai mengkristal pada tepinya (melalui
nucleasi heterogen di dinding, bawah, atau atap), maka nukleasi heterogen
menjadi pengontrol proses keterbentukan tekstur. Suatu waktu beberapa kristal
telah terbentuk, nukleasi heterogen juga dapat hadir pada tepi kristal yang
sudah lebih dulu terbentuk, khususnya jika saturasi lokal dari rekasi kimia
komponen tertentu terjadi dekat dengan kristal.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Ketika
suatu nuclei terbetntuk, pertumbuhan kristal dapat dipengaruhi oleh beberapa
faktor: 1. Komposisi melt, 2. Jenis dan densitas dari kehadiran nuclei, 3. Temperatur
dari melt ketika kristalisasi dimulai (dapat saja bukan temperatur likuidus),
4. Cooling rate, 5. Difusi spesies kimia melalui melt, 6. Rekasi yang terjadi
antara muka kristal dan cairan melt, 7. Heat flow pada daerah tempat tumbuhnya
kristal. Ingat bahwa tekstur2 ini diamati berdasarkan ukuran, bentuk
(morfologi), orientasi dan hubungan batas dari kristal dan kristalinitas dari
seluruh batuan. Yang mana tiap faktor ini menentukan karakter masing-masing.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Kristalinitas
ditentukan oleh komposisi dan faktor temperatur (1,3,4). Magma kaya silika
(ryolitik, granitik) cenderung akan lebih viskous (kental), dan lebih tebal
(seperti madu yang lebih tebal dari air), viskositas yang tinggi akan
mengurangi kemampuan atom untuk bermigrasi saat melt, atau berdifusi, ke dalam
nucleous atau menumbuhkan kristal. Magma silika rendah (basal, gabbro) memiliki
viskositas lebih rendah, memudahkan tingkat difusi yang lebih besar. Sama halnya
dengan, tingkat pendingingan yang tinggi juga tetap tidak memudahkan material
bermigrasi membentuk nuclei atau menumbuhkan muka kristal. Faktanya, melting
dapat mendingin sangat cepat membentuk material padat (gelas).<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Viskositas
tinggi dan pendinginan yang cepat berkombinasi memebentuk erupsi magma silka
tinggi untuk membentuk tekstur gelas (glassy texture) pada batuan volkanik dan
produknya dikenal dengan obsidian.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Kebanyakan
obsidian, dibandingkan gelas pada umumnya terdiri dari mikrolite, atau kristal
kristal yang sangat kecil dalam matrik gelas. Sama dengan tekstur hipokristalin
hadir dalam batuan volkanik yang lain, sebagai tekstur porfiritik. Kehadiran
tekstur dalam ukuran butir yang bervariasi tidak lepas dari perhatian terhadap
faktor faktor yang mengontrol ukuran butirnya (Marsh 1998).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Hypokristalin
dan tekstur porfiritik yang lain memiliki atribut sejarah pendinginan dua
tahap. Pertama akan membentuk fenokris, diikuti dengan pendinginan yang
membentuk groundmass tentu saja dengan suhu yang leibih rendah dan penurunan
temperatur yang lebih cepat.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Mengeneralisasi
kurva densitas nukleasi ditunjkan oleh gambar 2.25 merupakan faktor yang
penting dalam pertumbuhan kristal konsep undercooling(faktor 3). Mungkin saja melt
mendingin dibawah temperatur liquidus. Kristal mulai terbentuk, setelah masa
inkubasi, karena kesetimbangan distabilkan lagi. Perbedaan temperatur antara
temperatur kristalisasi dan temperatur likuiuds dinamakan undercooling (atau
terkadang juga disebut supercooling) dan dintunjukan dengan simbul ΔT
(T liquidus-T crystal growth). Pada gambar 2.25a pendinginan melt menuju ΔT1
akan secara relatif menurunkan densitas nukleasi (jumlah nuclei/unit volume)
(garis putus putus). Karena tingkat pertumbuhan dari bebrapa krstal akan cepat
dan menjadi besar. Dan hasilnya berupa tekstur pegmatitik.seperti pada contoh
kedua, anggap melt mendingin dari ΔT2, pada ΔT2 akan membentuk tinggakat
pertumbuhan yang besar sampai menengah (hipidiomorfik granular, medium-fine
grainde texture). Pada kondisi undercooled ΔT3 akan membentuk densitas
nuklei yang tinggi namun growth ratenya rendah. Hasil dari tekstur akan
bersifat afantitik atau fine grained. <br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Sebagaimana
conto yang ditunjukan pada paragraf awal dair bagian ini, mengenali ukuran dari
kristal yang terbentuk bukan emrupakan fngsi dari tingkat pendinginan
sebagaimana sering dianggap demikian. Tapi tingkat nukleasi, densitasnya, memegang
kontrol paling dominan (Swanson 1977). Meskipun pendinginan yanglambat pada
kedalaman dapat menghasilkan kristal yang besar, kombinasi dari densitas nukleasi
yang rendah (misalnya <1000 nuclei per cm3) dan pertumbuhan kristal yang
tinggi (3 mm sampai 19 m/ day) dapat menghasilkan formasi kristal yang besar. Beberapa
kristal dapat terbentuk pada periode ang singkat. Beberapa pegmatiti, faktanya,
memiliki morfologi yang menunjukan pertumbuhan yang sangat cepat. <br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Secara
eksperimental Swanson (1977) telah membuat kurva yang menghubngkan pertumbuhan
kristal dengan densitas nukleasi antara beberapa mineral (kuarsa, plagioklas,
dan alkali feldspar). Perhatikan kurvanya pada suhu 120°C akan membentuk tekstur
porfiritik selama satu tahap proses pendinginan. Untuk alkali felkspar pada ΔT,
densitas nukleasi relatif rendah tapi pertumbuhannya tinggi dan membentuk
kristal yang besar. Pada plagioklas baik growth ratenyamaupun densitas nukleasi
adalah sedang, sehingga ukuran kristalnya akan berkembang dalam ukuran sedang. Dan
kristal kuarsa yang kecil juga akan terbentuk pada waktu yang sama. Batuan yang
akan dihasilkan akan memilki bentuk yang fenokris berupa alkali feldspar dengan
matrik berupa plagioklas dan kuarsa.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Dapat
disimpulkan bahwa, berbagai jenis cooling rates, densitas nuleasi, dan growth
rate, dan collin ghistory dapat menghasilkan berbagai jenis ukuran butir,
umumnya,, tiap jeis butir hadir hadir dalam berbagai ukuran. Pada batuan dengan
ukuran butir yang besar, butir yang dihasilkan akan panjang, pendinginan yang
lambat dan kristalisasi atau dari rapid growth dari beberapa nuclei pada saat
undercooling yang kecil. Tekstur porfiritik dapat terbentuk dari sejarah
kristalisasi single atau multistage.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Pengaruh
dari komposisi terhadap morfologi yang dihasilkan tidak terlalu banyak tqapi
Lofgren dan Donaldson (1975) mengajukan bahwa cooling rate yang tetap,
akanmerubah komposisi dari melt dari poor silica (gabbroic) ke hihg silica
(granitic) menyebabkan perubhan dari bentuk kristalyang tabular menjadi
bercabang (tabular ke brancing). Penelitian mereka juga mendemonstrasikanspengaruh
dari cooling rate. Cooling rate yang rendah membentuk kristal yang tabular, sama
halnya dengan undercooling yang kecil. Dengan meningkatnya cooling rate,
morfologi bervariasi dari memanjang hingga agak bercabang sampai membentuk
bentuk yang benar benar bercabang (Lofgren 1983) membentuk range tekstur basal
dari spherulitik hingga ophitic, karena densitas dan jenis lokasi nukleasi
heterogen, dan dia juga berargumen (1980m 1983) bahwa fenomena nukleasi
merupakan faktor kritis dalam perkembangan tekstur.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Range
dari tekstur batuan beku sangat bergantung dari variasi hubungan nukleasi dan
pertumbuhan kristal, sebagai konsekuensi dari pemahaman tekstur memerlukan
penelitian yang dikombinasikan proses kristalisasi.</div><span class="fullpost">
</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-29690368948221526982020-12-28T16:31:00.001-08:002020-12-28T16:36:50.954-08:00Al-Quran isyarahkan tentang lapisan Atmosfer<p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVcoO4HeJ21znKkGo60j7wIzghmHqQVfMatgzEzc3x4s1BX3Yc-s3a1y10y8ia1MoBTGRRIqZdiuFrSLmIugzjeMleWTsSkXsW7u3jUOraQCYGZQZg5IJS5hDt-xSKhg6GPufuSHVN1W2e/s2048/IMG_20201128_055557.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1152" data-original-width="2048" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVcoO4HeJ21znKkGo60j7wIzghmHqQVfMatgzEzc3x4s1BX3Yc-s3a1y10y8ia1MoBTGRRIqZdiuFrSLmIugzjeMleWTsSkXsW7u3jUOraQCYGZQZg5IJS5hDt-xSKhg6GPufuSHVN1W2e/s320/IMG_20201128_055557.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><span><a name='more'></a></span>Atmosfer dalam istilah ilmu geologi adalah lapisan gas di sekitar
bola dunia. Atmosfer dari segi kegunaan dan fungsinya memiliki tujuh
lapisan.<br />Ada beberapa ayat Al-Quran yang menjelaskan bergunanya
lapisan-lapisan gas atau atmosfer itu bagi kita. Misalnya Allah Swt
berfirman:<br />﴿وَ جَعَلْنَا السَّماءَ سَقْفاً مَحْفُوظاً وَ هُمْ عَنْ آیاتِها مُعْرِضُونَ﴾<br />“Dan
Kami menjadikan langit itu sebagai atap yang terpelihara, sedang mereka
berpaling dari segala tanda-tanda (kekuasaan Allah) yang terdapat
padanya.” (Qs. Al-Anbiya’ [21]: 32)<p></p>
<p>Dikarenakan ketenangan yang ada di bumi tidak cukup untuk ketenangan
hidup manusia, dan diperlukan penjaga di atas atap yang dapat menjaganya
dari runtuhan benda-benda langit, karena itu Allah berfirman demikian.<br />Yang
dimaksud dengan langit di sini adalah atmosfer yang mengitari bumi,
yang ketebalannya beratus-ratus kilometer. Lapisan tersebut sepertinya
lembut dan tersusun dari kumpulan gas dan udara, namun juga tebal hingga
dapat membakar benda-benda langit yang berjatuhan ke bumi karena
gesekan dengannya. Dengan demikian permukaan bumi aman dari serangan
meteor dan jatuhnya benda-benda lainnya.</p>
<p>Atmosfer adalah lapisan-lapisan gas yang menyelimuti bumi.[1] Dalam
istilah ilmu geologi definisinya adalah: Atmosfer adalah selubung gas di
sekitar bumi.[2] Lapisan paling rendahnya adalah permukaan bumi dan
lapisan paling atas tidak ada pembatasnya. Menurut para ilmuan,
ketebalan atmosfer lebih dari 1000 kilometer.[3]<br />Dalam pembahasan
geologi dan meteorologi, atmosfer memiliki lapisan-lapisan berikut ini:
Torosphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Ionosphere, Exosphere,
Magnetosphere dan Angin Matahari. Ada juga yang mengatakan:
Lapisan-lapisan atmosfer dikategorikan berdasarkan berbagai tolak ukur,
misalnya dari segi suhu udara, lapisan atomsfer dibagi menjadi lima
bagian.[4]<br />Sebagian ilmuan yang meyakini kemukjizatan Al-Quran dalam
ilmu pengetahuan berkeyakinan bahwa dari segi fungsi dan kegunaan, kitab
suci ini membagi lapisan-lapisan atmosfer menjadi tujuh lapis, yang
mana menurut ilmu geologi secara urut lapisan-lapisan itu adalah:
Torosphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Ionosphere dan Exosphere.[5]<br />Meskipun
atmosfer adalah istilah baru, namun banyak ayat Al-Quran yang
menyinggung keberadaannya. Di sini kita akan mengisyarahkan tiga contoh
di antaranya:</p>
<p>Allah Swt berfirman:</p>
<p>﴿وَ جَعَلْنَا السَّماءَ سَقْفاً مَحْفُوظاً وَ هُمْ عَنْ آیاتِها مُعْرِضُونَ﴾<br />“Dan
Kami menjadikan langit itu sebagai atap yang terpelihara, sedang mereka
berpaling dari segala tanda-tanda (kekuasaan Allah) yang terdapat
padanya.” (Qs. Al-Anbiya’ [21] : 32)<br />Karena kenyamanan di muka bumi
saja tidak cukup, dan perlu penjaga dari bahaya benda-benda luar
angkasa, Allah Swt menciptakan atap untuk bumi berupa “langit” (yakni
atmosfer) yang merupakan tanda kebesaran-Nya.<br />Yang dimaksud dengan
“langit” di ayat tersebut adalah lapisan udara yang ketebalanya ratusan
kilometer. Lapisan-lapisan udara itu tersusun dari kumpulan gas yang
meliputi permukaan bumi. Atmosfer, atau lapisan-lapisan udara tersebut,
meski terlihat lembut karena hanya sekedar udara dan gas, namun
dikarenakan ketebalannya, setiap benda angkasa yang jatuh ke permukaan
bumi sebelum menyentuh daratan sudah habis terbakar terlebih dahulu
karena gesekannya. Keberadaan atmosfer-lah yang menjaga muka bumi dari
serangan meteor-meteor.[6]</p>
<p>Allah Swt juga berfirman:</p>
<p>﴿و ثُمَّ اسْتَوى إِلَى السَّماءِ وَ هِیَ دُخانٌ فَقالَ لَها وَ
لِلْأَرْضِ ائْتِیا طَوْعاً أَوْ کَرْهاً قالَتا أَتَیْنا طائِعینَ﴾<br />“Kemudian
Dia menuju kepada penciptaan langit dan langit itu masih merupakan
asap, lalu Dia berkata kepadanya dan kepada bumi: “Datanglah kamu
keduanya menurut perintah-Ku dengan suka hati atau terpaksa.” Keduanya
menjawab: “Kami datang dengan suka hati.”” (QS. Fushilat [41] : 11)</p>
<p>Sayid Hibatuddin Syahristani berkeyakinan bahwa yang dimaksud dengan
kata “langit” dan “asap” di ayat itu adalah atmosfer. Sebelum memberikan
penjelasan tersebut, mulanya ia menyebutkan arti-arti dari kata
“langit” (sama’); sebagaimana yang ia jelaskan, menurut masyarakat awam
yang dimaksud dengan “langit” adalah “segala sesuatu yang berada di atas
bumi.” Lalu dalam istilah teknis agama kata “langit” memiliki beberapa
arti:<br />Pertama, udara yang ada di atas bumi dan ruang hampa;<br />Kedua, selubung udara yang lebar dan menyelimuti bumi;<br />Ketiga, planet-planet dan benda langit di angkasa.<br />Lalu
ia berkata: Jika “langit” itu dapat diartikan sebagai setiap maujud
yang ada di atas, lalu apa salahnya jika kita artikan langit sebagai
selubung gas dan udara yang menyelimuti bumi kita ini? Kemudian dia
membawakan puluhan dalil dari ayat dan riwayat untuk membuktikan bahwa
maksud “langit” adalah atmosfer bumi kita. Misalnya ayat 11 surah
Fushilat adalah salah satu dari dalilnya; dan begitu juga
riwayat-riwayat yang menyinggung bahwa bumi tercipta dari kumpulan asap.
Asap di ayat suci itu diartikan sebagai uap, yang kesimpulannya ia
jelaskan begini: Berdasarkan berbagai riwayat yang ditemukan, maksud
dari asap adalah uap; namun karena asap dan uap berasal dari satu
sumber, atau karena keduanya mirip, oleh karena itu kata “asap”
digunakan untuk makna uap. Maka riwayat-riwayat yang kami temukan
menjadi saksi bahwa seluruh langit yang berjumlah tujuh yang
menyelubungi tujuh bumi tercipta dari uap.[7]<br />Banyak mufasir lain yang memberikan kemungkinan yang sama.[8] (Ya, banyak sekali pendapat-pendapat ahli tafsir lainnya).</p>
<p>Ia berfirman pula:</p>
<p>﴿وَ بَنَیْنا فَوْقَکُمْ سَبْعاً شِداداً﴾<br />“Dan Kami bina di atas kamu tujuh buah (langit) yang kokoh,” (Qs. An-Naba’ [78] : 12)</p>
<p>Satu lagi kemungkinan yang ada berkenaan dengan ayat suci ini: yang
dimaksud adalah tingkatan-tingkatan udara di bumi atau atmosfer.[9] Yang
meskipun kelihatannya hanya sekedar udara dan tidak memiliki kepadatan,
namun jika ada benda dari angasa yang jatuh ke bumi dia akan terbakar
hangus hingga menghilang sebelum menyentuh permukaan bumi. Jika lapisan
atmosfer ini tidak ada, maka kehidupan manusia di muka bumi akan hancur
begitu saja terkena jatuhan benda-benda angkasa.[10]<br />Atmosfer
memberikan kenyamanan hidup bagi para penghuni bumi. Jelas ini semua
adalah karunia Ilahi dan merupakan rahmat serta kasih sayang dari-Nya,
sebagaimana yang dijelaskan oleh Al-Qur’an. </p>
<p>[1]. Kamus Parsi Muin, kata “atmosfer”; Sayid Abdul Hujjat Balaghi,
Hujjah Al-Tafasir wa Balâgh Al-Iksir, jil. 1, hal. 151, Nasyr Hikmat,
Qum, 1386 S.<br />[2]. Habib Taqi Zade, Tozihati bar Fasl Atmosfer (Buku
Geologi tahun ke-3); Majalah Rusyd Amuzesy Zamin Syinâsi, No. 8, hal.
24, Bahar, 1366 S.<br />[3]. Ibid.<br />[4]. Untuk penjelasan lebih lengkap
tentang lapisan-lapisan ini, silahkan merujuk link berikut:
http://eghlim1990.blogfa.com/post-31.aspx<br />[5]. Silahkan lihat http://eghlim1990.blogfa.com/post-31.aspx<br />[6]. Nasir Makarim Syirazi, Tafsir Nemune, jil. 13, hal. 398, Dar al-Kutub al-Islamiyah, Teheran, Cetakan Pertama, 1374 S.<br />[7].
Syahristani, Sayid Hibatuddin, Islâm wa Hai’at, hal. 131-145, Matba’ah
al-Ghura fi al-Najaf, 1356 Q; Muhammad Ali Ridhai Esfahani, Pazyhusehi
dar I’jâz ‘Ilmi Qur’ân, hal. 102-103, Kitab Mubin, Rasht, Cetakan
Ketiga, 1381 S.<br />[8]. Sayid Mahmud Thaleqani, Partu Az Qur’ân, jil. 1,
hal. 111, Syarkat Sahami Intishar, Teheran, Cetakan Keempat, 1362 S.,
Sayid Ali Akbar Quraisyi, Tafsir Ahsan al-Hadits, jil. 12, hal. 68,
Bunyad Bi’tsat, Teheran, Cetakan Ketiga, 1377 S.; Ibnu Abd Al-Da’im
(Samin Halabi), Ahmad bin Yusuf, Al-Dur al-Mashûn fi ‘Ulûm al-Kitâb
Al-Maknûn, muhaqiq: Ahmad Muhammad Al-Kharrath, jil. 9, hal. 510-511,
Dar al-Qalam, Dimasyq.<br />[9]. Tafsir e Nemune, jil. 26, hal. 24; Adnan
Al-Syarif, Min ‘Ulûm al-‘Ardhi al-Qur’âniyah, hal. 67, Dar Al-Ilm Li
Al-Malayin, Beirut, Cetakan Ketiga, 2000 M.<br />[10]. Tafsir e Nemune, jil. 26, hal. 24.</p><span class="fullpost">
</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-66889746674201498002020-12-28T16:22:00.001-08:002020-12-28T16:37:25.595-08:00Alquran dan Sains Geografi<p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9dgav68D-ot7s9G62i_1fZAI824Rik9vrGWM7COYP6jFibc4CvWI9VDKraqlFbZUtC9IUFuECUh_nPiXSc9YmpsCt4FCg4AsIysZtJiQVI-wZW_WAyMaEDvklSUtu3KoVliT2OrNTdLZ3/s2048/IMG_20201130_162011.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1152" data-original-width="2048" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9dgav68D-ot7s9G62i_1fZAI824Rik9vrGWM7COYP6jFibc4CvWI9VDKraqlFbZUtC9IUFuECUh_nPiXSc9YmpsCt4FCg4AsIysZtJiQVI-wZW_WAyMaEDvklSUtu3KoVliT2OrNTdLZ3/s320/IMG_20201130_162011.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><span><a name='more'></a></span>Oleh: DR Abdul Basith Jamal & DR Daliya Shadiq Jamal<br /><br />Yang dimaksud dengan<a href="https://republika.co.id/tag/ilmu-geologi"> Ilmu Geologi </a>adalah
ilmu yang berkaitan dengan pengamatan struktur batu-batuan yang ada di
dalam bumi dan bentuk-bentuknya serta rekahan batu-batuan tersebut dan
pengaruhnya. Sebagai sebuah ilmu, ia memiliki dasar dan cabang-cabangnya
yang banyak. Namun yang akan menjadi perhatian kita dalam pembahasan
ini adalah isyarat ilmiah yang terdapat pada beberapa ayat Al-Qur'an
yang berkaitan dengan kondisi<a href="https://republika.co.id/tag/geologi"> geologi </a>bumi.<br /><br />Penelitian
yang dilakukan para ahli geologi, salah satunya berkaitan dengan
struktur bumi yang memiliki tingkat ketinggian tertentu seperti gunung.
Dari penelitian tersebut, didapatkan bahwa berdasarkan geomorphologi,
gunung memiliki fungsi sebagai pasak yang menancapkan bumi di jagat alam
raya ini. Di mana puncak gunung menjadi penahan keseimbangan bumi dari
arah atas. Dan bagian yang menancap di kedalaman bumi atau bagian
akarnya menjaga keseimbangannya dari arah bawah dan berhubungan dengan
inti bumi.<br /><br />Dengan adanya gunung-gunung ini, keseimbangan bumi
dapat terjaga, sehingga bumi tidak terlalu condong ke salah satu arah di
tengah-tengah alam raya yang melingkupinya. Karenanya kita mendapatkan
penyebaran gunung-gunung di bumi ini yang tampak teratur pada semua
bagian dari permukaan bumi. Kita mendapatkan, di salah satu belahan bumi
terdapat banyak dataran tinggi, sedangkan di tempat lain terdapat
banyak dataran rendah. <br /><br />Demikianlah fungsi dari gunung-gunung
ini. Dan hal ini, telah diisyaratkan Al-Qur'an dalam surah An-Nahl ayat
15. Allah SWT berfirman: <i>"Dan Dia menancapkan gunung-gunung di bumi supaya bumi itu tidak goncang bersama kamu."</i><br /><br />Dengan
memerhatikan ayat ini, kita mendapatkan ketelitian cara pengungkapan
Al-Qur'an dalam memilih kata-kata yang dipergunakannya. Penggunaan kata
‘alqaa’, menunjukkan adanya peristiwa pemindahan materi-materi pembentuk
gunung, baik yang berasal dari dasar bumi, lalu mengendap di
permukaannya, maupun dari salah satu bagian dari permukaan bumi yang
terbawa ke permukannya di bagian lain. <br /><br />Contoh dari pemindahan
yang terjadi dari dasar bumi ke permukaannya, terdapat pada gunung
merapi yang menyemburkan lava dari kawahnya. Adapun contoh dari gunung
yang terbentuk karena endapan yang terjadi di permukaan bumi, maka hal
itu bisa diakibatkan karena kelapukan dan pengikisan, yang diiringi oleh
serangkaian proses perubahan alami dan kimiawi sehingga endapan itu
menjadi keras dan terkumpul menjadi materi pembentuk gunung.<br /><br />Penggunaan
kata ‘an tamida bikum’ menjelaskan fungsi gunung dalam menekan dan
mengontrol gerakan bumi sehingga keseimbangannya di tengah-tengah jagat
raya ini terjaga.<br /><br />Inilah petunjuk Al-Qur'an yang menjelaskan
tentang fungsi gunung-gunung. Di bagian lain, terdapat juga ayat
Al-Qur'an yang menunjukkan adanya daratan rendah di permukaan bumi.
Sebagai contoh, sebagaimana disebutkan dalam Al-Qur'an adalah wilayah
tempat terjadinya peperangan (sebelum peperangan terakhir) antara
pasukan Romawi dan Persia, yaitu lembah sungai Yordania, di mana pasukan
Persia memperoleh kemenangan. <br /><br />Penelitian yang dilakukan oleh
para ahli geologi menunjukkan bahwa lembah sungai Yordania pada saat
itu, merupakan daratan terendah, dibandingkan daerah lain di belahan
bumi ini. Inilah yang disinggung Al-Qur'an dalam surat Ar-Rum ayat 1-3.
Allah SWT berfirman: <i>"Alif Laam Mim. Telah dikalahkan bangsa Romawi.
Di negeri yang terdekat (terendah) dan mereka sesudah dikalahkan itu
akan menang."<br /></i><br />Selanjutnya di bagian lain, Al-Qur'an
mengisyaratkan bahwa bumi diliputi suatu lapisan gas yang menjaganya
dari pengaruh langsung sinar matahari. Di mana pengaruh lapisan ini
dapat kita rasakan secara langsung dalam kehidupan kita. Lapisan gas
yang dimaksud adalah atmosfir bumi, yang mengelilingi seluruh permukaan
planet bumi di mana kita hidup ini. <br /><br />Karena adanya lapisan
atmosfir ini, Al-Qur'an mengungkapkan bahwa manusia, hidup di bumi,
bukan di atas bumi. Karena kalau kita hidup di atas bumi maka permukaan
kulit bumi adalah bagian terluar dari bumi. Dan ini tentunya
bertentangan dengan realitas alam, dengan adanya atmosfir bumi yang
mengelilingi semua permukaan bumi dengan kekuatan gaya gravitasinya. <br /><br />Apa yang disampaikan di atas, telah dijelaskan oleh Al-Qur'an dalam surah Ar-Rum ayat 9. Allah SWT berfirman: <i>"Dan apakah mereka tidak mengadakan perjalanan di muka bumi."<br /></i><br />Tentang
sifat dari atmosfir, Al-Qur'an dalam salah satu ayatnya telah
menjelaskan hal ini, yaitu makin tinggi meninggalkan permukaan bumi,
maka tekanan udara pada ketinggian tersebut makin berkurang. Dan itu
berpengaruh pada kemampuan benda-benda hidup seperti manusia untuk
bernafas pada ketinggian tersebut, dikarenakan saluran pernafasannya
terganggu karena persediaan oksigen yang menipis. Bahkan akibat dari
persediaan oksigen yang sedikit itu, bisa mengakibatkan manusia seperti
tercekik atau ia akan mati.<br /><br />Allah SWT berfirman dalam surah Al-An’am ayat 125: <i>"Barangsiapa
yang Allah menghendaki akan memberikan kepadanya petunjuk, niscaya Dia
melapangkan dadanya untuk (memeluk agama) Islam. Dan barangsiapa yang
dikehendaki Allah kesesatannya, niscaya Allah menjadikan dadanya sesak
lagi sempit, seolah-olah ia sedang mendaki ke langit. Begitulah Allah
menimpakan siksa kepada orang-orang yang tidak beriman."</i><br /><br />Yang
dimaksud dengan ‘dadanya yang sempit’ adalah terjadinya kekurangan
oksigen pada saluran pernafasannya. Dan pengumpaan-Nya dengan pendakian
ke langit, hal itu menunjukkan kurangnya persediaan oksigen pada
ketinggian tertentu pada lapisan atmosfir bumi.<br /><br />Dalam surah Ath-Thariq ayat 11, Al-Qur'an menyebutkan sifat lain dari atmosfir ini. Allah SWT berfirman: <i>"Demi langit yang dapat mengembalikan."</i>
Kalimat ‘dzatu ar-raj’i’, mengandung arti bahwa atmosfir memiliki daya
untuk melindungi bumi, sekaligus memantulkan kembali gelombang
elektronik yang membenturnya ke permukaan bumi. Kondisi ini dimanfaatkan
manusia untuk membuat radio yang memanfaatkan energi gelombang udara.
Dan umumnya, manfaat dari atmosfir ini, juga digunakan secara lebih luas
dalam bidang telekomunikasi.<br /><br />Selain dari hal di atas, Al-Qur'an
juga membicarakan tentang lapisan bebatuan yang menjadi unsur terpenting
bagi struktur pembentukan bumi. Lapisan ini memanjang, mulai dari
permukaan bumi sampai ke dalam perut bumi, yang terdiri dari berbagai
macam tingkatan bebatuan yang memiliki unsur fisika dan kimia tertentu. <br /><br />Tingkatan
kondisi batu tersebut terdiri dari berbagai macam batu-batuan yang
secara garis besar terbagi ke dalam tiga kelompok, yaitu batu api atau
batu bara, yang terbentuk dari magma yang mencuat dari dasar bumi
kemudian membeku menjadi batu api. Dan terkadang magma ini juga bisa
muncul ke permukaan bumi dan menjadi batu api yang terdapat di bagian
atas bumi.<br /><br />Kelompok kedua adalah batu endapan yang terbentuk
karena endapan unsur-unsur batu yang terjadi melalui proses pengikisan
dan pelapukan karena pengaruh udara atau air. Batu endapan ini, karena
pengaruh dari pelapukan yang terjadi, terbagi ke dalam batu endapan
mekanik yang terbentuk karena faktor endapan mekanik—seperti sungai, dan
lautan—dan batu endapan kimiawi yang terbentuk karena proses endapan
zat kimia tertentu—seperti karbonat kalsium—dan batu endapan biokimia
yang terbentuk karena pengaruh makhluk-makhluk hidup yang memiliki
bentuk yang sangat kecil dan rumit.<br /><br />Jenis ketiga adalah
metamorfik atau batu yang bentuknya dapat berubah-ubah karena pengaruh
tekanan udara atau panas atau pengaruh keduanya. Batu-batuan jenis
ketiga ini, pada awalnya berasal dari jenis batu api dan batu endapan.<p></p><p>Selanjutnya, lapisan bebatuan yang terdapat di bumi, juga terdiri dari
berbagai macam jenis unsur logam yang terbentuk karena proses gabungan
beberapa unsur kimia dan fisika. Unsur logam ini terbagi dalam dua
bagian. Pertama adalah logam silikat, di mana unsur utama pembentukannya
adalah silikon ditambah dengan unsur-unsur kimia yang lain. Kedua
logam non-silikat di mana dalam unsur pembentukannya tidak terdapat
unsur silikon.<br /><br />Dalam pembentukan suatu jenis logam, unsur yang
dibutuhkan bisa berjumlah satu atau lebih yang saling menyatu dengan
suatu proses tertentu. Namun untuk membantu proses pembentukannya,
setiap logam membutuhkan energi tertentu sehingga proses pemnbetukannya
dimungkinkan. Dan pembentukan logam ini tidak bisa terjadi kecuali jika
tingkatan energinya berada pada titik terendah.<br /><br />Al-Qur'an telah
memberikan isyaratnya berkaitan dengan bebatuan dan unsur logam yang
terdapat pada lapisan bebatuan pembentuk bumi. Di antaranya, Al-Qur'an
menyebutkan tentang pembentukan warna pada bebatuan yang terdapat di
lapisan bumi yang berbentuk batu, yang mempunyai pengaruh pada warna
logam yang dikandungnya. Berdasarkan Al-Qur'an, pembentukan warna-warna
bebatuan disebabkan oleh reaksi kimia, seperti larutan air, pencairan,
zat hidrat dan zat asam karbon, dan seterusnya.<br /><br />Dalam surah Fathir ayat 27 Allah SWT berfirman: <i>"Tidakkah
kamu melihat bahwasannya Allah menurunkan hujan dari langit lalu Kami
hasilkan dengan hujan itu buah-buahan yang beraneka ragam macam jenisnya
(warnanya). Dan di antara gunung-gunung itu ada garis-garis putih dan
merah yang beraneka macam warnanya dan ada (pula) yang hitam pekat."</i><br /><br />Ayat
di atas memberi petunjuk bahwa sebab dari terbentuknya gunung yang
berwarna putih atau merah adalah air. Dan ini adalah isyarat bahwa air
mempunyai pengaruh dalam reaksi kimia yang menyebabkan warna pada
bebatuan dan tambang.<br /><br />Dalam bagian lain, Al-Qur'an memberikan isyaratnya pada surah Al-Hadid ayat 25. Allah SWT berfirman: <i>"Dan Kami turunkan besi yang padanya terdapat kekuatan yang hebat."</i> Ayat ini menyebutkan salah satu unsur terpenting yang terdapat pada lapisan bebatuan yang ada di dalam bumi, yaitu unsur besi.<br /><br />Berdasarkan
penelitian para ahli, pembentukan unsur besi mustahil terjadi di dalam
perut bumi, karena dalam pembetukannya ia membutuhkan energi yang banyak
dan sulit tersedia di dalamnya. Karenanya mereka menyimpulkan bahwa
unsur besi telah terbentuk di planet lain yang di dalamnya tersedia
energi yang memungkinkan pembentukannya. Kemudian unsur besi ini dibawa
atau dipindahkan ke bumi dengan satu mekanisme yang tidak diketahui
secara pasti.<br /><br />Cara ungkapan Al-Qur'an dengan menggunakan kata
‘kami turunkan’ menjelaskan peristiwa turunnya unsur besi ini. Karena
turunnya sesuatu tidak mungkin terjadi kecuali dari daratan tingi ke
daratan rendah. Dan tingkat ketinggian dan kerendahan itu, tidak lain,
melainkan tingkat ketinggian dan kerendahan energi yang dibutuhkan dalam
pembentukan unsur besi.<br /><br />Al-Qur'an dalam bagian lainnya
menyebutkan fenomena alamiah lain yang berkaitan dengan lapisan
bebatuan, yaitu apa yang biasanya disebut dengan lempengan tektonik.
Dalam surah Ath-Thariq ayat 12 Allah SWT berfirman: <i>"Dan bumi yang mempunyai ‘rekahan’."<br /></i><br />Peristiwa
rekahan yang terjadi di kulit bumi, sebagaimana yang disebutkan dalam
ayat di atas, terjadi karena lipatan yang terjadi pada lempengan
tektonik yang membentuk struktur bumi. Di mana lipatan ini berpengaruh
kepada terbelahnya lapisan bebatuan yang ada di perut bumi dan
terbentuknya lubang besar, sehingga tercipta palung besar yang membentuk
lautan dan samudera. Contohnya palung yang terdapat di Laut Merah yang
berasal dari lubang besar di daratan afrika.<br /><br />Petunjuk lain yang
disampaikan Al-Qur'an dan berkaitan dengan lapisan bebatuan yang
terdapat di bumi adalah penjelasannya tentang pembagian ketebalan
lapisan bebatuan tersebut. Berdasarkan pengamatan para ahli<a href="https://republika.co.id/tag/geologi"> geologi </a>dan
geofisika, kesimpulan yang diambil menyatakan bahwa ketebalan yang
terdapat pada bebatuan di bagian inti bumi lebih besar daripada yang
terdapat pada bebatuan di bagian kulit bumi. Karenanya berat bumi
terletak di intinya bukan di kulitnya. Dan penelitian para ahli juga
memberi petunjuk bahwa bumi bisa menumpahkan isinya yang terdiri dari
bebatuan-bebatuan besar ketika terjadi letusan gunung atau gempa yang
dahsyat. <br /><br />Dalam hal ini, Allah SWT berfirman dalam surat Az-Zilzalah ayat 1 dan 2: <i>"Apabila
bumi diguncangkan dengan guncangannya (yang dahsyat). Dan bumi telah
mengeluarkan bahan-bahan berat (yang dikandung)nya."</i><br /><br />Hakikat
ilmiah pertama yang terdapat dalam ayat di atas, adalah ketebalan
lapisan bebatuan di bagian inti bumi dibandingkan dengan lapisan
bebatuan yang terdapat di kulit bumi. Hakikat yang kedua adalah
gelombang gempa yang dahsyat dapat menyebabkan bumi mengeluarkan
kandungan batu-batu besar yang terdapat di dalamnya ke permukaan bumi.<br /><br />Selanjutnya,
selain beberapa hal yang telah disebutkan di atas, kita mendapatkan
Al-Qur'an membicarakan beberapa petunjuk lainnya berkenaan dengan
terdapatnya lapisan air yang terdapat di antara lapisan bebatuan
pembentuk bumi bersama dengan lapisan udara yang terletak pada
celah-celah di sekitar lapisan bebatuan yang ada. Lapisan air ini juga
tersedia dalam jumlah yang lebih banyak di lautan, samudera dan sungai,
sehingga membentuk permukaan air yang mengelilingi semua permukaan bumi.<br /><br />Fungsi
dari air ini sangat esensial sekali. Karena ia adalah salah satu unsur
terpenting yang menyebabkan keberlangsungan kehidupan di muka bumi ini.
Air bermanfaat membantu tumbuh-tumbuhan dalam perkembangannya untuk
menghasilkan bahan makanan yang dimanfaatkan oleh hewan dan manusia. Ia
juga bermanfaat dalam setiap proses kehidupan bagi segenap makhluk hidup
yang terdapat di muka bumi ini.<br /><br />Berdasarkan penelitian geologi,
unsur air terbentuk setelah terlepasnya bumi dari matahari dalam bentuk
gumpalan gas yang memiliki tingkat panas yang sangat tinggi. Kemudian
bumi, setelah melalui proses tertentu menjadi dingin yang akibatnya
menghasilkan lapisan bebatuan, gas dan air di dalamnya. Karenanya
dikatakan bahwa air yang terdapat di planet bumi berasal dari bumi itu
sendiri. <br /><br />Al-Qur'an sejak 14 abad yang lalu telah mengisyaratkan hal ini dalam surah An-Naziat ayat 31. Allah SWT berfirman: <i>"Dia memancarkan daripadanya (bumi) mata airnya dan (menumbuhkan) tumbuh-tumbuhannya."</i><br /><br />Selanjutnya
dalam bagian lain, Al-Qur'an menjelaskan tentang proses air yang
terdapat di samudera dan lautan yang berubah dari bentuk cairnya ke
dalam bentuk uap atau awan yang selanjutnya berubah menjadi tetesan air
berupa hujan yang diturunkan ke bumi sehingga terbentuk sungai-sungai
dan saluran-saluran air yang menyimpan air tawar. Sebagian dari air
hujan ini meresap ke dalam perut bumi dan berkumpul menciptakan
sungai-sungai yang terdapat di dalam perut bumi, atau naik ke arah
permukaan bumi dalam bentuk sumur dan mata air.<br /><br />Hakikat ilmiah ini dijelaskan oleh Al-Qur'an dalam surah An-Nur ayat 43. Allah SWT berfirman: <i>"Tidakkah
kamu melihat bahwa Allah mengarak awan, kemudian mengumpulkan antara
(bagian-bagian)nya, kemudian menjadikannya bertindih-tindih, maka
kelihatanlah olehmu hujan keluar dari celah-celahnya."</i><br /><br />Dan dalam surah An-Naml ayat 60 Allah SWT berfirman: <i>"Dan Dia yang menurunkan air untukmu dari langit, lalu Kami tumbuhkan dengan air itu kebun-kebun yang berpemandangan indah."<br /></i><br />Yang
dimaksud dengan ‘menurunkan air untukmu dari langit’ adalah turunnya
hujan dari awan ke permukaan bumi, untuk menghidupkan bumi sehingga ia
dapat mengeluarkan berbagai tumbuhan dengan buah-buahannya yang beraneka
ragam jenis dan warnanya.</p><p>https://republika.co.id/berita/lohhyw/alquran-dan-sains-ilmu-geologi-1 dan 2 <br /></p>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8790654268842940012.post-1648086183786700302020-04-04T15:20:00.005-07:002020-12-28T16:39:17.818-08:00Kebenaran Al-Qur'an, Dua Laut yang Tidak Pernah Menyatu<h1 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name headline" style="background-color: white; border: 0px none; color: #444444; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 24px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 500; line-height: 1.3em; margin: 0px 0px 12px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; transition: font-size 0.2s linear 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3ryKHCQEY8R6qRBPFj23Fy7gLJzoyMZMfFE9C8v8RsfqI5vzk8-IlXQIrvEfI0g5a_p1acc4_MDvngBEOpUNJdbOQlqF5m65lMq2WT-_yHVwgix4w_xCdy45W5K4ZQ3OQhfs9V6Jeqnxd/s1600/dua+laut+yang+tidak+pernah+bercampur.jpg" style="border: 0px none; color: #49ace1; font: inherit; margin: 0px 1em; max-height: 10000000em; outline: currentcolor none medium; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="kebenaran Al-Qur'an, dua laut yang tidak pernah menyatu" border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3ryKHCQEY8R6qRBPFj23Fy7gLJzoyMZMfFE9C8v8RsfqI5vzk8-IlXQIrvEfI0g5a_p1acc4_MDvngBEOpUNJdbOQlqF5m65lMq2WT-_yHVwgix4w_xCdy45W5K4ZQ3OQhfs9V6Jeqnxd/s1600/dua+laut+yang+tidak+pernah+bercampur.jpg" style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; height: auto; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; max-width: 100%; outline: currentcolor none medium; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="kebenaran Al-Qur'an, dua laut yang tidak pernah menyatu" width="357" /></a></h1>
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<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-4242157179078624670" style="background-color: white; border: 0px none; color: #777777; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<div id="kode-iklan-atas" style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;">
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span><a name='more'></a></span>Biasanya pertemuan laut dengan laut akan menyatu padu, baik itu warna air laut atau suhu pada air laut. Namun ada yang janggal antara pertemuan dua laut ini, yaitu laut Mediteranian dan laut Antlantik. Ketika kedua laut ini bertemu yaitu pada selat Gibraltar, Kejanggalannya adalah kedua alut ini tetap mempertahankan warnanya masing-masing dan suhu air masing-masing tanpa ada percampuran antara keduanya, seolah-olah ada dinding yang memisahkan keduanya. Subhanallah...<!--more--></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<div style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Kebenaran ini telah tercantum pada Al-Qur'an surat Ar-Rahman : </span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="border: 0px none; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">"Dia membiarkan dua lautan mengalir yang keduanya kemudian bertemu. Antara keduanya ada batas yang tidak dilampaui masing-masing"</i> <b style="border: 0px none; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">(QS. Ar-Rahman : 19-20)</b></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Ayat lain yang menceritakan fenomena yang sama terdapta pada surat Al-Furqan yang berbunyi :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="border: 0px none; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">"Dan Dia-lah yang membiarkan dua laut yang mengalir (berdampingan), yang ini tawar lagi segar dan yang lain asin lagi pahit ; dan Dia jadikan antara keduanya dinding dan batas yang menghalangi"</i> <b style="border: 0px none; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">(QS. Al-Furqan : 53).</b></span><br style="margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px;" /><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br style="margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px;" /><div id="kode-iklan-tengah1" style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;">
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</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Dua lautan yang tidak bercampur itu terletak di Selat Gibraltar, selat yang memisahkan benua Afrika dan Eropa, tepatnya antara negara Maroko dan Spanyol.</span><br style="margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px;" /><div class="separator" style="border: 0px none; clear: both; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg86Xfu8u7XvWiYFVxb51Idf2n_KAu7x1Nm_SWkeK-c3B5SIvsisbI2jfmol9rvkNTqxcScOIvdhYY7zVsHx4id3BrUpJwS-Q8KYVmyLEQE6veRiayoHujvHFB1fH07akDyg4bB5v2BTUFo/s1600/selat+gibraltar.jpg" style="border: 0px none; color: #49ace1; font: inherit; margin: 0px 1em; max-height: 10000000em; outline: currentcolor none medium; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="selat gibraltar" border="0" height="256" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg86Xfu8u7XvWiYFVxb51Idf2n_KAu7x1Nm_SWkeK-c3B5SIvsisbI2jfmol9rvkNTqxcScOIvdhYY7zVsHx4id3BrUpJwS-Q8KYVmyLEQE6veRiayoHujvHFB1fH07akDyg4bB5v2BTUFo/s1600/selat+gibraltar.jpg" style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; height: auto; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; max-width: 100%; outline: currentcolor none medium; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="selat gibraltar" width="400" /></a></div>
<div style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Arus selat Gibraltar memang sangat besar di bagian bawahnya. Hal ini dikarenakan perbedaan suhu, kadar garam, dan kerapatan air (density)nya. Air laut di Laut Tengah (mediterania) memiliki kerapatan dan kadar garam yang lebih tinggi dari air laut yang ada di Samudra Atlantik. Menurut sifatnya, air akan bergerak dari kerapatan tinggi ke daerah dengan kerapatan air yang lebih rendah. Sehingga arus di selat Gibraltarbergerak ke barat menuju Samudra Atlantik. Lalu apakah air ini akan bercampur denga air di Samudra Atalntik?</span></div>
<div style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Tidak! Ternyata ketika air laut dari Laut Tengah menuju Samudra Atlantik, mereka tidak mencampur. Seakan ada sekat yang memisahkan kedua jenis air ini. Bahkan batas antara kedua air dari dua buah laut ini sangat jelas. Air laut dari Samudra Atlantik berwarna biru cerah, sedangkan air laut dari laut dari Laut TEngah berwarna lebih gelap. Inilah keajaiban alam. TIdak hanya itu yang aneh dari perilaku dari kedua air laut ini. Ternyata, air laut dari Laut Tengah yang tidak mau bercampur dengan air laut dari Samudra Atlantik ini menyusup dibawah air laut berasal dari Samudra Atlantik. Air dari Laut Tengah ini menyusup di bawah air dari Samudra Atlantik di bawah kedalaman 1000 meter dari permukaan Samudra Atlantik.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br style="margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px;" /><div id="baca-juga" style="border-radius: 3px; border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-radius: 3px; border: 2px solid rgb(239, 239, 239); color: #888888; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 500; left: 20px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 2px 12px; position: absolute; top: -15px; transition: font-size 0.2s linear 0s; vertical-align: baseline; z-index: 1;">
Baca Juga</h2>
<ul style="border-radius: 3px; border: 2px solid rgb(239, 239, 239); font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 30px 0px 20px; max-height: 10000000em; max-width: 75%; padding: 20px 20px 10px 40px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://infoislamdaily.blogspot.com/2014/12/keajaiban-rahim-ibu.html" style="border: 0px none; color: #49ace1; display: block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; outline: currentcolor none medium; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">Keajaiban Rahim Ibu</a></li>
<li style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://infoislamdaily.blogspot.com/2014/11/keajaiban-air-mata.html" style="border: 0px none; color: #49ace1; display: block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; outline: currentcolor none medium; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">Keajaiban Air Mata</a></li>
<li style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://infoislamdaily.blogspot.com/2015/04/ubun-ubun-bagian-otak-yang-membuat-dusta.html" style="border: 0px none; color: #49ace1; display: block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; outline: currentcolor none medium; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">Ubun-Ubun, Bagian Otak Yang Membuat Dusta</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</span></div>
<div style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Bagaimana ini bisa terjadi?</span></div>
<div style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Air laut dari Lautan Atlantik memasuki Laut Mediterania atau Laut Tengah melalui Selat Gibraltar. Keduanya mempunyai karakteristik yang berbeda. Suhu air berbeda. Kadar garamnya berbeda. Kerapatan air (density) airpun berbeda. Waktu kedua air itu bertemu di Selat Gibraltar, karakter air dari masing- masing air laut tidak berubah. Penguapan air yang di Laut Mediterania sangat besar, sedang air dari sungai yang bermuara di laut Mediterania berkurang sekali. Itulah sebabnya air Lautan Atlantik mengalir deras ke laut Mediterania.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbhL_iUPFjStnYGuoRV7H1-vNdNvi54hhQ0kosp2AypmN0Y-LZNYtzs87bhpS6DVubCTWTDWo4__pV-r7QZl8fIZC0HiH6tlNrxvJ7a7RgTmA_IOnQWSEafjzZoJUsiutGM0Edi8igkR2m/s1600/arus+air+laut+di+selat+gibraltar.jpg" style="border: 0px none; color: #49ace1; font: inherit; margin: 0px 1em; max-height: 10000000em; outline: currentcolor none medium; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="arus air di selat gibraltar" border="0" height="143" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbhL_iUPFjStnYGuoRV7H1-vNdNvi54hhQ0kosp2AypmN0Y-LZNYtzs87bhpS6DVubCTWTDWo4__pV-r7QZl8fIZC0HiH6tlNrxvJ7a7RgTmA_IOnQWSEafjzZoJUsiutGM0Edi8igkR2m/s1600/arus+air+laut+di+selat+gibraltar.jpg" style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; height: auto; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; max-width: 100%; outline: currentcolor none medium; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="arus air di selat gibraltar" width="320" /></a></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<div style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: xx-small; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Arus air alut di Selat Gibraltar</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: xx-small; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br style="margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px;" /></span></div>
<div style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: xx-small; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br style="margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px;" /></span></div>
<div style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Sifat lautan ketika bertemu, menurut modern science, tidak bisa bercampur satu sama lain. Hal ini telah dijelaskan oleh para ahli kelautan. Dikarenakan adanya perbedaan massa jenis, tegangan permukaan mencegah kedua air dari lautan tidak bercampur satu sama lain, seolah terdapat dinding tipis yang memisahkan mereka.</span></div>
<div style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br style="margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px;" /></span></div>
<div style="border: 0px none; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Air laut Mediteranian, yang berwarna biru tua menyusup sampai kedalaman 1000m dari permukaan laut, di lautan Atlantik, dan terus masuk sejauh ratusan km di lautan Atlantik dan tetap tidak berubah karakteristiknya.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br style="margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px;" /></span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="border: 0px none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-height: 10000000em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Ini menjadi bukti bahwa Al-Qur'an adalah kitab yang benar dan tidak pernah salah serta akan terus terjaga kemurniannya sampai kiamat tiba yang diturunkan kepada Rasul yang menjadi penutup segala Rasul yaitu Nabi besar Muhammad SAW.</span></div>
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</span>Hendrik Boby Hertantohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11078184045199927175noreply@blogger.com1